A story about the Orthodox Church. A Brief History of the Russian Orthodox Church. Russian Orthodox Church in modern conditions
State educational institution
higher professional education
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and
mathematics (Technical University)
Department of History and Political Science
RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH
AND ITS ROLE IN THE HISTORY OF THE COUNTRY
"National history"
Moscow 2009
Compiled by Associate Professor, Ph.D. Rodionova I.V.
The Russian Orthodox Church and its role in the history of the country: Method. recommendations for the course "Domestic history" / Mosk. state Institute of Electronics and Mathematics; Compiled by: I.V. Rodionova. M., 2009.S. 32.
The recommendations can be used by 1st year students of all specialties of the faculties of electronics, automation and computer technology, computer science and telecommunications, applied mathematics, as well as economics, mathematics and evening faculties to prepare for seminars, tests and exams for the course "National History".
ISBN 978-5-94506-219-1
The Russian Orthodox Church and its role in the history of the country
Plan
1. Periodization of the history of the Russian Orthodox Church 3
1.1. First period (988-1448) 4
1.1.1. Key dates 4
1.1.2. Brief description of the first period 5
1.2. Second period (1448-1589) 8
1.2.1. Key dates 8
1.2.2. Brief description of the second period 9
1.3. Third period (1589 - early 18th century) 11
1.3.1. Key dates 11
1.3.2. Brief description of the third period 11
1.4. The fourth period (early 18th century - 1917) 12
1.4.1. Key dates 12
1.4.2. Brief description of the fourth period 13
1.5. Fifth period (1917-1988) 14
1.5.1. Key dates 14
1.5.2. Brief description of the fifth period 15
1.6. Sixth period (from 1988) 23
1.6.1. Key dates 23
1.6.2. Brief description of the sixth period 23
2. Social ministry of the Russian Orthodox Church 23
The history of the Russian Orthodox Church is inextricably linked with the history of the entire Russian state, at each stage of the formation of which the Church played a significant role. At the same time, she fulfilled her own tasks of a spiritual and moral nature, the ways of solving which were marked by special milestones.
1. Periodization of the history of the Russian Orthodox Church
Church historians have proposed various models of periodization. In the modern division of Russian church history, the boundaries of the periods are mainly the events of the internal church life, the paramount importance of which is indisputable.
First period: 988–1448 biennium – Russian Church under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Constantinople... (988 is the year of the Baptism of Rus. In 1448 St. Jonah was ordained by a Council of Russian bishops without the Patriarch of Constantinople.)
Second period: 1448–1589 biennium– autocephaly(Greek - self-righteousness) Russian Metropolitanate... (In 1589, the Moscow Local Council was held with the participation of Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople and representatives of the Greek clergy, at which the Moscow Patriarchate was established.)
The third period: 1589 - early 18th century – Patriarchate... (The Holy Synod was created in 1721.)
Fourth period - synodal (early 18th century - 1917). (In 1917, the Patriarchate was restored at the Moscow Local Council.)
Fifth period: 1917-1988 – The Russian Church in the conditions of the atheistic 1 states... (In 1988, a nationwide and state celebration of the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus was carried out , which marked the beginning of the revival of the Church.)
Sixth period: from 1988 to the present day.
Each of these events is the end of a long historical movement, which often took place over a wider geographical area. In this case, several conditional nature of any periodization, focusing on exact dates: there are transition periods that sometimes lasted more than one decade and combined the features of the previous and subsequent stages. So, the beginning of the synodal period is sometimes dated not 1721 (the establishment of the Holy Synod), but 1700 (the death of the last Patriarch Adrian). The beginning of the Patriarchal period is not reducible to 1589, but should also include the date of the Council of Constantinople in 1593, which confirmed the decision of the Moscow Council of 1589 and established the place (fifth) of the Moscow Patriarch among the Eastern Patriarchs, etc.
Kiev period
metropolitanate.
IN 988
year, the Kiev prince Vladimir concluded a treaty of friendship and mutual assistance with Byzantium. One of its conditions was the adoption of Christianity by Vladimir, which was done. In August 988 BC(according to a number of historians - August 1, 990.), a mass baptism of the Kievites - pagans in the river waters took place. Baptism was performed by Byzantine (Greek) priests. After that, Christianity began to take root in Novgorod, Rostov, Suzdal, Murom and other centers of the Kiev state. During the reign of Prince Vladimir (died in 1015), the vast majority of the population of Rus converted to Christianity. This process did not go smoothly, the researchers know the facts of resistance to the new faith.
Christianization of Rus was accompanied by active church building. Simultaneously, and church organization: services were performed in churches priests and deacons, in large cities - Novgorod, Vladimir-Volynsky, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Belgorod, Rostov Veliky - there were residences bishops, and in Kiev was metropolitan dedicated to Constantinople patriarch... Thus, in the first centuries of its existence The Russian Church was a metropolitanate under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople, although it had broad autonomy.
Kiev princes attracted the metropolitan and bishops to participation in public affairs.
The Church took part in the creation of all-Russian legislation, contributed to the mitigation of the punishment system, and developed a desire for mercy. Thanks to her, magnificent monuments of architecture and painting were erected, including the surviving Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod. Writing was spreading.
In the XII century, Kievan Rus split into appanage principalities. The United Russian Church has become the personification of all-Russian unity.
Having suffered severely with all the people during the Mongol-Tatar invasion The Church still received some privileges from the Horde. This gave her hierarchs the opportunity to strengthen the awareness of the unity of a torn apart and fragmented country. So, in 1274
A Church Council was held in Vladimire-on-Klyazma, in which the clergy of Suzdal Rus, Veliky Novgorod and Pskov participated. Life also raised the question of a new residence for the metropolitan, since ruined and unprotected Kiev could not fulfill the role of a spiritual center.
Moscow is the center of the Russian Church. At the beginning of the XIV century, the metropolitans moved their residence to Vladimir, and from 1326 year- to Moscow. The Metropolitan of Moscow became an outstanding church and political figure of that era. Alexy (1354-1378), due to historical circumstances, he became for a long time the first statesman - the head of the Boyar Duma and the regent of the young prince Dmitry (the future Donskoy). He contributed a lot to the unification of the lands around Moscow: he betrayed the churchly excommunication of the Russian princes who were guilty of disobedience to the Grand Duke of Moscow and violated the peace, blessed the pupils and tonsured of Moscow monasteries to found monasteries in various principalities, and strengthened the position of the Moscow prince with his high spiritual authority. Metropolitan Alexy spiritually prepared Grand Duke Dmitry for the beginning of the confrontation with the Horde. Two years after his death, the Russian army under the leadership of the prince won a historic victory at the Kulikovo field.
Activity played a huge role in the spiritual life of Russia Sergius of Radonezh(died in 1392 year), Abbot of the Trinity Monastery near Radonezh. He was able to breathe new strength into church life, to open up to the people of that era the still unknown depths of Orthodoxy. Thus, he began to assert the veneration of the Trinity as the Beginning and Source of life, as a symbol of conciliarity and fraternal unity. Through the teaching of Sergius about the Trinity, the Orthodox people were called upon to see in Orthodoxy the only spiritual force that brings everyone together, to one Shepherd (God), without destroying national and linguistic differences. The school of Sergius was closely associated with the flourishing of books, architecture, icon painting. In praise of Sergius, the monk Andrey Rublev(d. in 1430
year) painted the famous icon of the Life-giving Trinity, which became the greatest achievement of medieval Russian spiritual culture. By teaching about the Trinity, Sergius also answered the most important question of that era - about the unity of the Russian lands. He blessed Prince Dmitry, who was leaving for the Kulikovo field, giving him two schemniks for spiritual support - Alexander (Peresvet) and Andrey (Oslyabya).
It is also important that Sergius gave impetus to the wave monastery foundation of the late XIV - early XV centuries. Almost a quarter of the monasteries formed at that time were founded by his students. All of them were established on the basis of community life: common property and meals, obedience to the will of the abbot, common good, humility and brotherly love. His students were also Kirill Belozersky, Dmitry Prilutsky, Pavel Obnorsky, who founded monasteries in the Vologda region.
Period of autocephaly
(1448 - 1589)
Having become independent, the Russian Orthodox Church more than ever had to rely on her own strength, her spiritual experience and theological heritage.
In the XV-XVI centuries, continued active monastery foundation: about 600 monasteries and deserts were founded, by the end of the 16th century their total number reached 770. Some of them were located on the lands of the outlying or sparsely populated, thereby contributing to the attraction of new people there, and hence the further economic development of the Russian territory. Many monasteries of the outskirts carried out important political and diplomatic assignments of the Moscow princes, in fact, they were military outposts on distant and hardly defended borders. Some of the monasteries acquired through purchases, seizure, princely and boyar donations, and also thanks to the contributions of wealthy pilgrims, considerable holdings - land, peasants, fishing grounds, works of church art, etc. The accumulation of corporate property of the monasteries caused lively disputes in society, in the center which turned out to be the question of money-grubbing (hoarding).
In Orthodox theology, it is not customary to exaggerate the depth and acuteness of differences non-possessors and Josephites... Both leaders agreed that the basis of the monastic (monastic) tradition is the Faith, embodied in good deeds (and for this you need to have economic independence and solid incomes of the monasteries), carried out through prayer (and this requires the spiritual rebirth of each monk). Monasteries more and more confidently declared themselves in the social, cultural and spiritual life of the country.
Church cathedrals of 1547, 1549 and 1551 convened on the initiative Metropolitan Macarius (1542-1563). Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 unified all aspects of church life: worship, church administration, monastic and parish organization, the fight against heresies, the piety of the laity, etc. canonization 39 Russian saints. Each of them, representing a different type of holiness - saints, martyrs, saints, blessed, confessors, etc.- personified various ideals of a righteous life and a variety of ways to salvation.
Period of the first patriarchate
(1589 - 1721)
Already in the 15th century, the idea of establishing patriarchate, i.e. about the leadership of the Russian Church patriarch- the highest spiritual rank in Orthodoxy. From an ecclesiastical point of view, this would not only give the Russian Church the completeness of the dispensation, but would also correspond to its position in the world of Orthodox Churches as the largest, most numerous and influential.
Conditions for the commission of this act in full compliance with the rules canonical(ecclesiastical) law took shape by the end of the 16th century. IN 1589 year the election of the first Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia took place Job (1589 - 1605)... Of the nine subsequent patriarchs, the most famous Hermogenes (1606 - 1612), who ardently called the people during the Time of Troubles to fight against the Poles and died as a martyr; Filaret (1619 - 1633), the father of the first tsar from the Romanov dynasty, who did a lot to stabilize the country after the Troubles; Nikon (1652-1658) who undertook a reform in the Church.
The establishment of the patriarchate had a beneficial effect on the course of church affairs and significantly strengthened the rights and authority of the head of the Church, incl. and before the secular authorities. In the 17th century, the patriarchs paid special attention to the development of church printing, education, and strengthening of the deanery.
The Old Believer has become a deep national tragedy split, caused, as many researchers believe, mainly by the correction of liturgical books, rituals and icons. The reform begun Nikon with the good purpose of bringing books and liturgical practice in line with the Greek (they were considered the only true), it was carried out hastily and was accompanied by rude attacks against those who doubt its expediency. The Orthodox consciousness of the mass of believers did not have time to understand and be convinced of the validity of the proposed changes: to make the sign of the cross not with two, but with three fingers; perform ritual circular actions counterclockwise, and not along it; do not worship icons written with a deviation from the established canons, etc. Many Russian people of that time saw in these ritual changes a departure from the true Orthodox faith. but Great Moscow Cathedral 1666-1667 approved of Nikon's reforms and condemned those who adhered to the old rituals.
Synodal period
(1721 -1917)
1721 year established the Spiritual College to govern the Church, or Holy Governing Synod, consisting of the highest hierarchs. The synod took a place in the row government agencies. A secular official, the Chief Prosecutor of the Synod, appointed by the emperor, exerted a significant influence on the activities of the Synod.
In 1764, Catherine II confiscated most of the land from the Church along with the peasants ( secularization). In the Church, states were introduced - a fixed number of vacancies, followed by the introduction of their guaranteed content from the state budget. In church literature, these reforms are extremely negatively assessed; they are viewed as gross and inappropriate interference of the state in the affairs of the Church.
At the same time, by the beginning of the 20th century, problems of church and social activities: a well-known social inertia of the clergy, unpreparedness for active confrontation with the advancing nihilism and atheism, as well as socialism, excessive governmentalization of the church organization itself, etc. There were signs of a decline in the faith and authority of the Church among the younger generations. Some Russian hierarchs and church leaders saw a way out of this situation in a radical transformation of the entire structure of church life, including in the restoration of the patriarchate, democratization of church institutions, and active social service.
Second patriarchate period
In August 1917, the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church opened in Moscow for the first time since the 17th century. On October 28, 1917, he decided to restore the patriarchate... On November 5, 1917, he was elected Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Tikhon(Belavin). He happened to lead the Church during a period of difficult historical trials. The course towards the independence of the Church and opposition to the '' red terror '' of the Soviet regime, as well as the principled rejection of the civil war, more than once brought Patriarch Tikhon to the dock and to the cells of the Lubyanka. Continuous physical and mental pressure did not break his spirit, but in April 1925 led to an untimely death.
Since the time of the first arrest of Patriarch Tikhon in 1922, the church administration was seized renovationists, those. supporters of reforms, grossly destroying Orthodox traditions and ready to combine Christian teaching with the ideology of socialism. After the death of Tikhon, the disintegration of the church organism intensified, since the Church was not allowed to elect a new patriarch in accordance with the canons. At the same time, several hierarchs declared themselves locum tenens patriarchal throne.
IN 1927 year metropolitan Sergius(Starogorodsky) in the most difficult conditions of persecution and for the sake of the salvation of the Church considered it possible to compromise and, heading the church administration, issued a Declaration in which he proclaimed loyalty to Soviet power... This Declaration caused very contradictory assessments in church circles: part of the Church went underground (the Catacomb Church), and part turned away from Sergius. Almost all of them were repressed.
Meanwhile Soviet state policy led to massive closings of churches, all monasteries, educational institutions of the Church. Millions of believers could not receive spiritual comfort and perform Orthodox rituals. Their feelings and views were ridiculed and punished. By 1940, Metropolitan Sergius was at the head of the Church, which in the organizational sense was only a weak shadow of the former Russian Orthodox Church. In many areas, there were not a single functioning temple.
During the Great Patriotic War Stalin and his entourage, proceeding from political considerations and for the sake of strengthening the unity of the people and the trust of the Western allies, took a course to weaken the persecution of the Church, which, moreover, took a bright patriotic position. In September 1943 year it was allowed to hold a Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church, at which Metropolitan Sergius was elected patriarch... However, he soon died at the Local Council. 1945 year was elected to the patriarchal throne Alexy I(Simansky). In the first decade of his patriarchate, there were relatively favorable socio-political conditions for the revival of the church. Thousands of parishes were reopened, dozens of monasteries were revived, theological seminaries and academies were opened, a church magazine began to be published, calendars and liturgical books were printed. Patriarch Alexy I visited dozens of countries and once again strengthened the authority of the Russian Church in the world. The church joined the peace movement.
The time of the Khrushchev 'thaw'' Turned into new '' frosts '' for the Church. The course towards building communism, officially proclaimed by the CPSU, assumed the final and speedy eradication of religion. Massive persecutions and discrimination of believers resumed, all manifestations of clergy's social activity were excluded. The number of parishes, monasteries and educational institutions dropped sharply. The church was placed under the tacit control of the KGB. There is information that in 1961-1964 in the USSR 1234 people were convicted on religious grounds. The efforts of Patriarch Alexy I to meet with the leaders of the state and stop the tough anti-church course were not crowned with success. And all this - with outward benevolence towards the Church and its patriarch: Alexy I was awarded four orders of the Soviet state. He died in 1970 at the age of 93.
Despite this situation, the number of people observing religious rites in the country grew in the 50s: in 1959, every third child in the RSFSR was baptized, over the 50s, the income of the Church increased 4 times, competitions in seminaries increased, millions of people visited a few churches on the days of great holidays, published Bibles were sold out instantly, the number of pilgrims in the Trinity - Sergius Lavra grew.
WITH 1971
... By that time, the extreme manifestations of the hard line towards the Church were noticeably weakened, its organizational position was stabilized. Since the early 1980s, the Church has used extensive preparations for 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus to expand the forms of activity and more significant participation in social and spiritual processes that took place in the USSR on the eve of the beginning '' Restructuring’’. As the crisis of communist ideology and its institutions grew, interest in Orthodoxy grew in society. The 1988 jubilee celebrations resembled a nationwide celebration.
According to the chronicle tradition, the foundations of the Christian faith were brought to Russia by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called in the middle of the 1st century A.D. The penetration and spread of Christianity among the East Slavic tribes was due to the following factors:
Trade, economic and spiritual and religious ties with Byzantium;
The gradual evolution of paganism towards monotheism;
State formation process;
The need to strengthen the power of the Kiev prince:
The development of feudal relations and the need to justify social inequality;
The need to familiarize Russia with the common European political realities, spiritual and cultural values.
Due to the peculiarities of the geopolitical position of Russia between Europe and Asia, Prince Vladimir had a wide religious and civilizational choice. Theoretically, Russia could accept one of three religions, which were professed by neighboring states: Islam - Volga Bulgaria, Judaism - Khazar Kaganate, Eastern Christianity - Byzantium, or Western - most European countries. The choice of Orthodoxy is explained by the following factors:
The universal character of the doctrine, acceptable to all people;
The principle of the domination of secular power over spiritual;
The influence of Byzantium and the need to strengthen the military-political alliance with this state;
Missionary activity of Cyril and Methodius, baptism of Princess Olga;
The ability to perform divine services in their native language, the attractiveness of the decoration of temples.
In 988, a mass baptism of the inhabitants of Kiev took place in the Dnieper. After that, the priests, with the active support of the squad, baptized residents of other Russian cities. The peculiarity of the Christianization of Rus became dual faith, i.e. preservation of a number of pagan rituals and beliefs.
The history of the Orthodox Church in Russia begins with the formation of the Kiev Metropolis, dependent on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The Patriarch of Constantinople had the right to:
Bless the metropolitans to the pulpit;
The right of trial over the Metropolitan;
The right to resolve religious and ritual differences.
In the history of the Kiev metropolis, only two metropolitans were Russian: Hilarion, elected in 1051 and Clement in 1147.
The Russian Church was divided into dioceses headed by bishops, first into 6 (X century), then 15 (XIII century). The higher clergy of the Kiev Church was supported by state support - tithes from the prince's income. There were other sources of income: trade and court duties, monastic estates.
The second stage in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church is the Moscow one (XIII-XIY centuries). During this period, the church was a unifying force in the conditions of feudal fragmentation and the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Russian principalities had to fight against the Western European invaders. Prince of Novgorod Alexander Nevsky refused an alliance with the Catholic Church in exchange for military assistance and was subsequently canonized in the Orthodox Church.
During this period, the throne of the Metropolitan of All Russia was transferred to Moscow. Metropolitan Alexy and Abbot Sergius of Radonezh made a significant contribution to the national liberation movement.
In the middle of the XY century. The Russian Orthodox Church became autocephalous. In 1438, a council was held in Florence, at which a union was adopted between the Pope and the Byzantine patriarch Joseph, who recognized the supremacy of Rome. Metropolitan Isidor, who headed the Russian Church, supported the union, but the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II and the Moscow clergy accused Constantinople of apostasy and deposed Isidor. In 1448 a council was convened in Moscow and the Ryazan bishop Jonah was appointed metropolitan.
At the end of the XY century. The Russian Orthodox Church faced the heresies of the Jews and the strigolniki. The heretics rejected the Trinity of God, the divinity of Jesus Christ, did not recognize the church sacraments and hierarchy.
The polemics of the Josephites, led by Joseph Volotsky, and the non-possessors, led by Nil Sorsky, had a great resonance in the public life of Russia. The first defended the right of the church and monasteries to land ownership and recognized the supremacy of secular power, arguing that the power of the prince was from God. The non-possessors were in favor of an independent church and opposed the accumulation of wealth by the clergy.
Metropolitan Macarius crowned Ivan IY the Terrible on the kingdom, affirming the idea of the divinity of royal power. In the middle of the XYI century. the canonization of 39 Russian saints takes place, the unification of rituals and cults. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 introduced the church rank of archpriest, who monitored the discipline of the clergy, consolidated the customs of being baptized with two fingers, making a procession in the direction of the sun (salting), etc.
As a result of the strengthening of the Moscow centralized state, it became possible to establish the patriarchate in 1589. Job became the first Russian patriarch. The third stage in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church - Patriarchal 1589-1700. After the death of Boris Godunov and his son, Patriarch Job refused to recognize the power of the impostor False Dmitry I, for which he was exiled to a monastery. Another outstanding personality of the Time of Troubles was Patriarch Hermogenes, who, under the conditions of the Polish-Swedish intervention, defended the idea of an Orthodox kingdom. From 1619 to 1633 the Moscow patriarch was the father of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich - Filaret. He became a co-ruler of his son and received the title of "great sovereign".
In the middle of the XYII century. there was a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, which became a consequence of the church reform. The main reason for the reform was the implementation of the doctrine of the monk Philotheus "Moscow - the Third Rome", which established the historical continuity of Moscow in relation to the first Rome, "which fell into the Latin heresy", and the second Rome - Constantinople, captured by the Turks in 1453. This concept ensured the national unity of the state and the right to spread Orthodoxy outside of Russia. To turn Russia into the center of Orthodoxy, it was necessary to correct the liturgical books and unify the rituals according to the Greek standards. In addition, many errors and discrepancies have accumulated in the books. The reform was also facilitated by the development of printing.
Patriarch Nikon (1652-1666) played an important role in carrying out church reform. In the course of the reforms, the two-finger sign was replaced by the three-finger one, instead of "Jesus" they began to write "Jesus", along with the eight-pointed cross, they recognized the four-pointed one, they began to walk around the altar against the movement of the sun, etc. There have been changes in icon painting, church architecture and music.
But the reforms were not accepted by everyone. Many priests and lay people opposed the Greek patterns, considering them a deviation from the true faith. Archpriest Avvakum became the leader of the Old Believers. The followers of the old faith fled to the remote corners of Russia - to the North, to Siberia. Self-immolation, "patronizing", social unrest became acts of protest.
During the period of the reform, a conflict occurred between Nikon and the tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich. At the heart of the conflict is the question of the relationship between secular and spiritual power. The patriarch's idea that “the priesthood is higher than the kingdom” led to his overthrow. Church Cathedral 1666-1667 deprived Nikon of his dignity and finally approved the reforms, accusing the Old Believers of schism.
The consequences of these events were:
The emergence of the Old Believer Church;
Confirmation of the new rite of the Church;
Assertion of the priority of secular power over spiritual;
Loss of the monopoly on ideology by the Church;
Development of secular culture and social thought.
The official Church imposed an anathema on the Old Believers, which was lifted only in 1971.
Among the Old Believers, two main directions can be distinguished - the priest's and the bespopovtsy. Bespopovtsy believe that the post-reform clergy is wrong and has no right to exist. They preserved only two sacraments - baptism and confession. Popovtsy retained the priesthood.
The synoidal period in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church (1700-1917) began after the death of Patriarch Adrian. The new patriarch, Peter I, was not allowed to be elected, and the Church was headed by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne Stefan Yavorsky. The tsar subordinated the clergy to the Monastic Order, transferred the clergy to a salary, carried out a partial secularization of church lands.
In 1721 the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, according to which the patriarchal administration was replaced by the synodal one. The Most Holy Governing Synod was headed by the Chief Prosecutor and consisted of. The church reforms of Peter contributed to the greater subordination of the church to the state.
At the end of the XYIII century. The church lost almost all of its land holdings, and its property fell under state control. In the XYIII century. the missionary activity of the Church was actively developing, contributing to the spread of Orthodoxy in Siberia, the Far East, and the Caucasus.
The synodal period is characterized by the revival of monastic life and eldership. The elders of Optina Hermitage - Seraphim of Sarov (1760-1833), Ambrose Optinsky (1812-1821), John of Kronstadt (1829-1908) - gained special fame.
In the XIX century. a large number of theological educational institutions appeared. Under Alexander I, they were combined into one system. In the middle of the 19th century. the number of clergy reached 60 thousand people. Until the middle of the century, the clergy was a closed class, but in 1867 young men of all classes were allowed to enter seminaries. By 1917, there were 57 seminaries and 4 theological academies.
In August 1917, the All-Russian Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church began its work in Moscow, which lasted until 1918. On October 28, 1917, a decision was made to restore the patriarchate. Tikhon was elected the new patriarch.
Under Soviet rule, a number of legislative acts were adopted that not only separated the church from the state, but also placed it in a discriminated position. During the civil war, the church and clergy were severely persecuted. For 1918-1922. 27 bishops were arrested, and 40 thousand remained of more than one hundred thousand priests.
In February 1922, the government confiscated jewelry from the church to fight hunger. Patriarch Tikhon sent a message in which he allowed the voluntary donation of valuables, with the exception of sacred items. Repressions continued during the confiscation of church property, more than eight thousand priests died.
To establish civil peace and end the persecution of the clergy, Patriarch Tikhon in June 1923 recognized the legality of Soviet power. The main task of the patriarch was to preserve the canonical integrity of the church, the purity of doctrine in the face of a powerful anti-religious campaign.
After the death of Tikhon in April 1925, the church was headed by the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, Metropolitan Sergius. In his declaration of 1927, he declared the loyalty of the Church to the Soviet government in civil terms, without any concessions in matters of faith. This statement did not stop the repressions by the end of the 30s. in the USSR, only a few hundred churches operated and only four bishops remained in office. All monasteries and theological schools were closed.
On the first day of the Great Patriotic War, Metropolitan Sergius, in his Address, called on the Orthodox to defend the sacred land of the Fatherland from invaders. The Russian Orthodox Church has done a lot to strengthen the patriotic feelings of the Soviet people. The church contributed more than 300 million rubles to the defense fund, and the Dmitry Donskoy tank column and the Alexander Nevsky air squadron were built at its expense.
In September 1943, the patriarchate was restored. In February 1945, Metropolitan Alexy of Leningrad was elected patriarch to replace the deceased Sergius. The relaxation of the first post-war years led to an increase in the number of active churches, the opening of two theological academies and eight seminaries. But the Church was forbidden to conduct any other activity other than worship and the training of priests.
In 1961, the ROC joined the World Council of Churches. In the 70s. Patriarch Pimen was active in anti-war activities. On his initiative, the World Conference "Religious Leaders for Lasting Peace, Disarmament and Fair Relations between Nations" was held in Moscow.
The situation in the Church changed radically in the mid-1980s. In the anniversary year of 1988, more than a thousand parishes were opened, and the enrollment in theological seminaries was increased. Throughout the country, celebrations were held to mark the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Rus.
In May 1990, after the death of Pimen, Alexy II became the new Patriarch. In the 90s. there was a genuine separation of church from state. The state no longer promoted atheism. The religious organization was recognized as a legal entity with the right to own property, engage in social, missionary, and charitable activities.
In August 2000, at the Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church, the Fundamentals of the Social Concept of the Russian Orthodox Church were adopted. This document formulates and systematizes the position of the Church on a wide range of issues - economic, political, moral.
In May 2007, the "Act of Canonical Communion" was signed between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. This document was the result of a long-term work to eliminate contradictions and unite the Churches on a mutually acceptable basis.
In January 2009, Kirill became the new Patriarch.
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13. Myalo K. Involvement of God or denial of God? (Russian Orthodox Church and Soviet heritage). // Science and religion. 2010. No. 9.
14. Peter I and the Patriarchs // Science and Religion. - 2006 - 2006. - No. 12.
15. Russian Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches: prospects for cooperation. // Science and religion. - 2005. - No. 6.
16 http: // www.russion-ortodoks-church.org.ru/
Topic 8
Catholicism
Plan:
1. Features of the doctrine and cult of Catholicism.
2 Organizational structure of the Roman Catholic Church.
3. A short history of the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Features of the doctrine and cult of Catholicism.
The largest variety of Christianity is Catholicism. In the modern world, more than 1 billion people are adherents of Catholicism. Catholicism is predominantly widespread in Western, South-Eastern and Central Europe. In addition, his influence covers the majority of the population of Latin America and a third of the population of Africa. The positions of Catholicism are also strong in the United States.
The doctrine of Catholicism is based on the common Christian Creed, which includes 12 dogmas and seven sacraments. But the Catholic creed has its own differences. The source of Catholic doctrine is not only Holy Scripture, but also Holy Tradition, which includes the decisions of not only the Ecumenical Councils, but also subsequent councils, the judgments of the popes and the most authoritative saints. In general, Catholicism is more susceptible to religious innovations than Orthodoxy.
One of the reasons for the church schism was the dogma of the "filioque" (Latin and from a son). He was received at the Council of Toledo in 589. In Catholicism, the Holy Spirit can come not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. The veneration of the Virgin Mary is much more developed among Catholics - in 1854 the dogma of her Immaculate Conception was adopted, and in 1950 - the dogma of the resurrection and bodily ascension of the Virgin Mary.
In addition to the doctrine of hell and paradise, the Catholic Church formulated the dogma of purgatory - the place of residence of the souls of sinners, not burdened with mortal sins. The fire of purgatory removes sins before paradise. The dogma of purgatory was adopted by the Council of Florence in 1439 and finally approved by the Council of Triden in 1568.
In Catholicism, the doctrine of the stock of good deeds is widespread, according to which the church disposes of the stock of "super-deeds" accumulated through the activities of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints, being the mystical body of the Savior. Relatives of the deceased can alleviate the fate of the soul in purgatory through prayers, divine services, donations to the church. The doctrine of the stock of good deeds was the basis for the practice of selling indulgences (letters of absolution) in the Middle Ages.
A feature of the Catholic doctrine is the dogma of the Pope's infallibility, adopted at the I-st Vatican Council in 1870. According to this dogma, God himself speaks through the mouth of the Pope at official speeches on questions of faith and morality.
The originality of Catholicism is also manifested in cult activity, including the celebration of the seven sacraments. The sacrament of baptism is performed by pouring water over or immersion in water. The sacrament of chrismation in Catholicism is called confirmation and is performed on children aged 7-12 years. The sacrament of the Eucharist is administered with the help of unleavened bread. The sacrament of repentance, most often an individual one, is performed in a special room - the confessional. The sacrament of blessing is performed on a dying person.
In Catholicism, since the 11th century, celibacy has been in effect - the obligatory celibacy of the clergy. All Catholic priests belong to one of the monastic orders. At present, the largest monastic orders are the Jesuits, Capuchins, Dominicans, Benedictines, and others. There are 150 monastic orders.
The cult of the saints and the blessed is quite well developed in Catholicism. Before Vatican II, Catholic services were conducted in Latin, today in national languages.
Catholic churches are usually erected on a cross-shaped foundation, which is designed to remind of the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The main part of the Catholic church is facing the West. In home prayer, Catholics also usually turn towards Rome, located in Western Europe, which symbolizes its recognition as the capital of the entire Christian world, and the Pope as the head of the entire Christian Church.
Traditionally, the altar in the Catholic Church is open to all those present. The temple is dominated by sculptural images of Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and saints. However, in all Catholic churches one can find fourteen icons depicting various stages of the "Way of the Lord".
In a Catholic church, believers sit during services and get up only when singing certain prayers. The service has a musical accompaniment: an organ or harmonium sounds.
Holidays are basically the same as in Orthodoxy, but celebrated according to the Gregorian calendar. But Catholics have several specific holidays: the holiday of the Heart of Jesus, the holiday of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, the holiday of the Assumption of the Mother of God. The Feast of Commemoration of the Dead (November 2) is established in memory of those who have passed away.
The most solemn holiday, the Nativity of Christ, is celebrated with three services: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the birth of Christ in the bosom of the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God, in the soul of the believer. On this day, a manger with a figurine of the infant Christ for worship is exhibited in churches. The Epiphany among Catholics is called the feast of the Three Kings - in memory of the appearance of Jesus Christ to the pagans and the worship of Him by the three kings.
The number of strict fasts in Catholicism has tended to decrease; now they are observed at the beginning of Great Lent, on the Friday before Easter and on Christmas Eve. During the fast, Catholics are allowed to eat fish, milk, eggs and butter.
Rethinking Church History:
1. The ancient period of the undivided Church extends to the middle of the 11th century. (1054).
The first chapter of the history of the Christian Church should be about Jesus Christ, i.e. its Founder. Not all church historians agree with this point of view. They attribute this period to biblical history based on Bible study, which for believers is a divinely inspired book, not a source on Church history. Moreover, the Christian Church, as an institution, emerged only in the 2nd century.
2. Medieval period - from the middle of the XI century. before the fall of Constantinople in the East in 1453, and in the West, before the speech of Luther (1516).
Some see the edge at the end of the 6th century. - the death of Pope Gregory (in 604), others - at the end of the 7th century, - after the 6th Ecumenical Council. Many believe that the end of the ancient period should be recognized as the XI century, i.e. time (1054 g). separation of Churches. This long period is divided into two parts: before and after Constantine the Great. Then the middle of the 5th century. - this is the end, the conclusion of the Greek classical period in the history of the Church and the transition to the Byzantine one - an event of great importance not only in church life, but also in state life, b) then in the VIII century - the time of the end of the ecumenical councils. Since that time, the relationship between the Eastern and Western Churches has changed dramatically. The Patriarch of Constantinople, feeling the strength, began to fight with the popes for his recognition as a "Byzantine pope" in the East, so that the popes would no longer interfere in the affairs of the Eastern Church. The dads could not agree with this. Then the Patriarch of Constantinople preferred a break with the popes. The crisis dragged on until the middle of the 11th century, i.e. before 1054
3. A new period begins - in the East from 1453, and in the West from 1517 and continues to this day.
Periodization of the Russian Orthodox Church
Traditional division of the history of the Russian Orthodox Church:
1.Kiev, or pre-Mongol period (988-1237)
2.Moscow period before the division of the Russian Metropolitanate (1237-1469)
3. Moscow period before the establishment of the patriarchate (1469-1587)
4.History of the Russian southwestern Church from the year of division 1469 to the Union of Brest 1596 (1469-1596).
5. Patriarchal period (1589-1700) and in parallel the Kiev Metropolis for the same time.
6.Synodal period (1700-1917) 7. Post-revolutionary period (1917-1941)
7. War and post-war periods (1941 - 1991)
8.Post-Soviet era (1991 -)
Some clarifications in the chronology are introduced by A.V. Kartashev: 1. Kiev, or pre-Mongol period (beginning in 988) 2. Kiev-Vladimir-Moscow period (1037-1469) further - the same way.
By dates: 988 (989) - Baptism of Rus pr. Vladimir the Holy; 1237 - The beginning of the Mongol conquest of Russia; 1469 - the division of the single Russian metropolitanate into Moscow and the South; 1588 - the establishment of the Patriarchate (the first patriarch Job); 1700 - Peter I abolished the Patriarchate (the last Patriarch Adrian) and established the Holy Synod; 1917 - Revolution in Russian Empire. A total change in attitudes towards religion and the Church; 1941 - The beginning of the Second World War, the Church gains weight again, some cooperation with the government begins; 1991 - The collapse of the USSR. The Church is becoming stronger and more authoritative. The first patriarch in new Russia Alexy II
A Brief History of the Russian Orthodox Church
The history of the Russian Orthodox Church begins in 988, when the Kiev prince Vladimir decided to baptize Russia. But even before that, there were Christians in Russia. Archaeological excavations indicate that Christians were in Russia before 988. Almost nothing is known about this part of the history of the Russian Church. In what capacity the Russian Christian communities existed, to whom they were subordinate - there is also no information about this.
In 988, along with the baptism of Rus, the first dioceses were formed - in Kiev, the Kiev metropolis, dominating the entire Russian Church, in 990 - the Rostov diocese, in 992 - the Novgorod diocese. During the period of the split of the state into specific principalities, each of them strove to have its own diocese, so as not to depend on others not only politically, but also spiritually. However, the total number of dioceses was not large - it did not exceed two dozen, and at the beginning of Nikon's reform there were 13 of them (14). Their dependence on the central metropolitanate was often conditional - for example, the Novgorod archbishop, who was one of the most important officials of the boyar republic, was elected virtually independently of Kiev.
The Russian Orthodox Church was dependent on the Patriarch of Constantinople, its heads - the metropolitans - were appointed from the capital of the Empire. Often these were Greeks who were not too interested in the development of the Russian Church.
The division of the church began with the conquest of part of the Russian lands by the Lithuanian principality, and then by the Lithuanian-Polish kingdom. The King of Poland and the Prince of Lithuania were interested in the formation of their own Orthodox metropolis, independent of Russia. Already in 1354, Roman was consecrated by the Metropolitan of Volyn-Litovsk, but this did not take root, and was repeated only once.
With the strengthening of Moscow, when it actually became the center of a unified Russian state, there was a need for a metropolitan who had his throne in Moscow. Jonah, who was elected in 1433, became such a metropolitan. However, his election was not followed by ordination, and two more metropolitans stayed in Kiev. And only after the flight of Isidore, everyone recognized Jonah. He was consecrated by the Metropolitan on December 15, 1448, but was not appointed from Constantinople. Thus, the Russian Church actually acquired independence - autocephaly. Later, avotkephaly was also recognized by Constantinople.
However, the Catholic Rzeczpospolita was interested in the subordination of Orthodoxy to the Pope. In the West, attempts began to transform the Russian Church into a Uniate one. These attempts were successfully completed on December 25, 1595 with the signing of the Brest Union, according to which the church hierarchs, while retaining the Orthodox rituals, assumed the supremacy of the pope and the dogmas of the Catholic Church. The union was accepted by Metropolitan Michael of Kiev (Ragoza) and five more dioceses - Lutsk, Khelmsk, Brest-Vladimir, Pinsk, Polotsk, then Przemyshl, Smolensk (1626) and Lvov (1700). In parallel with the adoption of the union by the hierarchs and in fact the destruction of the hierarchy, the Orthodox union was forcibly implanted in individual parishes. However, not all accepted the union, and Orthodoxy existed for some time as an illegal community of separate parishes, not united hierarchically.
In 1622, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in order to calm the constant religious uprisings and tensions in Ukraine and Belarus, decided to renew the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Kiev. In 1622, for the first time in 27 years, a metropolitan appeared in Kiev, appointed from Constantinople. Until 1685, the Kiev metropolitans were exarchs of the Constantinople throne. However, the Uniates did not stop their activities, and under the last two metropolitans, the Orthodox Church was in great disarray from the Uniates. Finally, in 1685, the schism in the Russian Church was overcome - the Kiev Metropolitanate became the diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the meantime, important changes have taken place in the ROC itself. In 1589 the Moscow Metropolitanate was transformed into the Patriarchate. The Patriarch has become an extremely important figure in Russian society. In 1652 Nikon became the patriarch. To strengthen the position of Russian Orthodoxy and raise its prestige, he carried out a liturgical reform (correction of service books and icons according to Byzantine models, adjustments in rituals, in particular, the writing of Jesus instead of Jesus, the introduction of the three-finger sign of the cross instead of the two-finger sign, replacing the bows of the earth with belt bows, changing the direction of movement divine services (posolosn), the admission of the six-pointed cross along with the eight-pointed, the introduction of a regular church sermon). As a result of the reform, a split of the Church occurred, part of the population and clergy did not want to accept the changes. The Council of 1666-1667 anathematized all opponents of the reform, finally consolidating the split. The emerging movement of the Old Believers instantly disintegrated into many currents, often completely different from each other. Also, the Old Believers were protesting about the way the reforms were carried out - they were adopted not by a council, but solely by the patriarch.
A new turn in the history of the church took place in 1721. Peter I, dissatisfied with the existence of a powerful church figure, very authoritative in society - the patriarch - destroyed this office. At first, after the death of Adrian, in 1700 a new patriarch was not elected, but a locum tenens was appointed, and in 1721 the patriarchate itself was officially abolished and a collegial body was formed to lead the church - the Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor, who did not belong to the church. hierarchy, who was an ordinary tsarist official.
The synodal administration existed until 1917, when the patriarchate was restored at the local council after the October Revolution. Tikhon (Belavin) was elected patriarch. He anathematized Soviet power. The brutal persecution of the Church began, which continued throughout the entire period of the existence of Soviet power.
At the same time, a new schism shook the church. First, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church, which was formed on the territory of the Ukrainian Republic, separated from it. However, it was soon destroyed and remained only among Ukrainian emigrants.
An opposition movement appeared in the church, called Renovationism. The beginning of the movement dates back to May 1922, it advocated a rapprochement between the church and the Soviet regime. During the period of the highest upsurge, it enjoyed the support of almost half of the ruling bishops (37 out of 73, and almost all Orthodox bishops were imprisoned). From the very beginning, it was heterogeneous and the various churches formed by the Renovationists never united. At a certain moment, Renovationism managed to bring the church closer to death - in some provinces there was not a single temple, not a single priest, but soon they began to disappear (when they were no longer useful to the authorities) and returned to the ROC. In 1946, its last foci disappeared.
After the death of Tikhon in 1924 and until 1943, the ROC again did not have a ruling patriarch. In the 1930s, groups, sects and churches separated from the ROC, which recognized Soviet power, and did not recognize the new power, considering it "the power of the Antichrist", and the Church as "the servant of the Antichrist." Some of these groups still exist in small numbers.
The powerful flourishing of the church, accompanying the introduction of perestroika and glasnost into the USSR, was overshadowed by two events - in 1990 the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church was restored and thus the end of the unity of Orthodoxy in Ukraine was put. In 1991 the autonomous Ukrainian Orthodox Church was formed, and in 1993 its Metropolitan Filaret passed to the Autocephalists. However, this could not destroy the ROC in Ukraine, and to this day it is the most numerous confession in the country. The second is the separation of the Estonian Diocese and its annexation to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
But, despite individual episodes, the revival of Orthodoxy is taking place today, obviously for everyone. Throughout Russia and the near abroad, the number of churches and parishes is growing. The social influence of the church is also growing.
