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Napoleon Bonaparte is the conqueror of all of Europe. Which countries did Napoleon conquer and which countries did he give over to which relatives?

(Condensed essay)

1. Second Italian company of Bonaparte. Battle of Marengo

On May 8, 1800, Bonaparte left Paris and went to a new big war. His main opponent was still the Austrians, who, after Suvorov left, occupied Northern Italy. The Austrian commander-in-chief Melas expected Napoleon to lead his army along the coast, as before, and concentrated his troops here. But the first consul chose the most difficult route - through the Alps and the St. Bernard Pass. The weak Austrian barriers were overthrown, and at the end of May the entire French army suddenly emerged from the Alpine gorges and deployed in the rear of the Austrian troops. On June 2, Bonaparte occupied Milan. Melas hurried to meet the enemy, and on June 14, a meeting of the main forces took place near the village of Marengo. All the advantage was on the side of the Austrians. Against 20 thousand French they had 30, the advantage in artillery was generally overwhelming, almost tenfold. Therefore, the start of the battle was unsuccessful for Bonaparte. The French were driven from their positions and retreated with heavy losses. But at four o'clock Deze's fresh division arrived, which had not yet taken part in the battle. Straight from the march, she entered the battle, and the whole army went on the attack after her. The Austrians could not withstand the onslaught and fled. Already at five o'clock Melas's army was completely defeated. The triumph of the winners was overshadowed only by the death of Dese, who died at the very beginning of the attack. Upon learning of this, Napoleon cried for the first time in his life.

2. French victories in Germany

In early December 1800, General Moreau defeated the Austrians at Hohenlinden. After this victory, the road to Vienna was open for the French. Emperor Franz II agreed to peace negotiations.

3. Peace of Luneville

On February 9, 1801, the Peace of Luneville was concluded between France and Austria, which confirmed the main provisions of the Treaty of Campoformia of 1797. The Holy Roman Empire was completely ousted from the left bank of the Rhine, and this territory completely passed to France, which, in addition, acquired the Dutch possessions of Austria ( Belgium) and Luxembourg. Austria recognized the Batavian Republic (Netherlands), the Helvetic Republic (Switzerland), as well as the restored Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (Lombardy and Genoa), which all remained virtually French possessions. Tuscany was taken from the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand III and turned into the kingdom of Etruria. Following Austria, the Neapolitan Bourbons concluded peace with France. Thus, the Second Coalition collapsed.

4. Treaty of Aranjuez. Return of Louisiana to France

On March 21, 1801, Bonaparte concluded the Treaty of Aranjuez with the Spanish King Charles IV. Under its terms, Spain returned Western Louisiana in America to France. In exchange, Bonaparte gave the kingdom of Etruria (formerly Tuscany) to the son-in-law of the Spanish king Charles IV, Infante Luigi I of Parma. Spain had to start a war with Portugal to force it to abandon its alliance with Great Britain.

5. Surrender of the French corps in Egypt

The position of the French army, abandoned by Bonaparte and blocked in Egypt, became more and more difficult every month. In March 1801, after the English army allied to the Turks landed in Egypt, its defeat became inevitable. On August 30, 1801, the French corps capitulated to the British.

6. Italian Republic

In December 1801, the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic. The republic was headed by a president who had virtually unlimited powers. Bonaparte himself was elected to this post, but in fact the current affairs were handled by Vice President Duke Melzi. Thanks to the good financier Prina, whom Melzi made Minister of Finance, it was possible to eliminate the budget deficit and replenish the treasury.

7. Peace of Amiens

On March 25, 1802, a peace treaty with Great Britain was signed in Amiens, ending the nine-year Anglo-French war. This treaty was later joined by the Batavian Republic and the Ottoman Empire. French troops had to leave Naples, Rome and the island of Elba, the British - all the ports and islands they occupied in the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic. The Batavian Republic ceded its possessions in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to Great Britain. The island of Malta, occupied by the British in September 1800, was to be abandoned by them and returned to its former owner - the Order of St. John of Jerusalem

8. State and legislative reforms of Bonaparte

Bonaparte devoted the two years of peaceful respite that France received after the conclusion of the Peace of Luneville to government and legislative reforms. The law of February 17, 1800 abolished all elective offices and assemblies. According to the new system, the Minister of the Interior appointed a prefect to each department, who became the sovereign ruler and overlord here and, in turn, appointed mayors of cities.

On July 15, 1801, a concordat was signed with Pope Pius VII (1800-1823), by virtue of which the state Catholic Church of France was restored in April 1802; bishops were to be appointed by the first consul, but receive approval from the pope.

On August 2, 1802, a new constitution of the year X was adopted, according to which Bonaparte was declared “first consul for life.” Thus, he finally became a complete and unlimited dictator.

In March 1804, the development of the civil code was completed, which became the basic law and basis of French jurisprudence. At the same time, work was underway on a commercial code (finally adopted in 1807). Here, for the first time, regulations were formulated and codified regulating and legally ensuring trade transactions, the life of the stock exchange and banks, bill and notarial law.

9. “Final resolution of the imperial deputation”

The Peace of Luneville recognized the annexation by France of the left bank of the Rhine, including the lands of the three spiritual electors - Cologne, Mainz and Trier. The decision on the issue of territorial compensation for the injured German princes was submitted to the imperial deputation. After lengthy negotiations, under pressure from France, the final project for the reorganization of the empire was adopted, which was approved on March 24, 1803 by the Imperial Reichstag. According to the “Final Decree,” church possessions in Germany were secularized and, for the most part, became part of large secular states. Almost all (with the exception of six) imperial cities also ceased to exist as subjects of imperial law. In total, 112 small state entities were abolished, not counting the lands annexed by France. Their 3 million subjects were distributed among a dozen major principalities. The largest increases were received by the French allies Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, as well as Prussia, under whose rule most of the church's possessions in Northern Germany came. After the completion of territorial delimitation by 1804, about 130 states remained within the Holy Roman Empire. The liquidation of free cities and ecclesiastical principalities - traditionally the main support of the empire - led to a complete decline in the influence of the imperial throne. Francis II had to approve the Reichstag resolution, although he understood that he was thus authorizing the actual destruction of the institution of the Holy Roman Empire.

10. "Louisiana Purchase"

The most important event during the reign of the third US President Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) was the so-called. The Louisiana Purchase was a deal for the United States to acquire French possessions in North America. On April 30, 1803, a treaty was signed in Paris, according to which First Consul Bonaparte ceded Western Louisiana to the United States. For a territory of 2,100,000 square kilometers (almost a quarter of the current United States), the federal government paid 80 million French francs or 15 million American dollars. The American nation took possession of New Orleans and the vast desert that lay west from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains (which served as the border of the Spanish possessions). The following year, the United States laid claim to the Missouri-Columbia basin.

11. The beginning of a new Anglo-French war

The Peace of Amiens turned out to be only a short-term truce. Both sides continually violated their obligations under this agreement. In May 1803, diplomatic relations between Great Britain and France were interrupted, and the Anglo-French war resumed. English territory itself was unattainable for Bonaparte. But in May-June 1803, the French occupied Hanover, which belonged to the English king.

12. Execution of the Duke of Enghien. The gap between Russia and France

At the beginning of 1804, a conspiracy against the first consul, organized by the Bourbons expelled from France, was discovered in Paris. Bonaparte was furious and thirsty for blood. But since all the main representatives of the Bourbon family lived in London and were out of his reach, he decided to take it out on the last scion of the Conde family, the Duke of Enghien, who, although he had nothing to do with the conspiracy, lived nearby. On the night of March 14-15, 1804, a detachment of the French gendarmerie invaded the territory of Baden, arrested the Duke of Enghien in his house and took him to France. On the night of March 20, a trial of the arrested man took place at the Chateau de Vincennes. 15 minutes after the death sentence was pronounced, the Duke was shot. This massacre had a huge public outcry and its consequences were very sensitive, both in France itself and throughout Europe. In April, the indignant Alexander I broke off diplomatic relations with France.

13. Proclamation of the French Empire. Napoleon I

In 1804, institutions that pretended to represent the French people, but in fact were filled with minions and executors of the will of the first consul - the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps and the Senate - raised the question of turning the lifelong consulate into a hereditary monarchy. Bonaparte agreed to fulfill their wishes, but did not want to accept the royal title. Like Charlemagne, he decided to declare himself emperor. In April 1804, the Senate passed a resolution giving the first consul Napoleon Bonaparte the title of Emperor of the French. On December 2, 1804, in the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Pope Pius VII solemnly crowned and anointed Napoleon I (1804-1814,1815).

14. Proclamation of the Austrian Empire

In response to the proclamation of Napoleon I as Emperor, the Austrian Empire was proclaimed on August 11, 1804. The King of Hungary and Czech, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II accepted the title of hereditary Emperor of Austria (under the name Franz I).

15. Kingdom of Italy

In March 1805, the Italian Republic was transformed into the Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon arrived in Pavia and on May 26 was crowned with the iron crown of the Lombard kings. The administration of the country was entrusted to the viceroy, who became Napoleon's stepson Eugene Beauharnais.

16. Treaty of St. Petersburg. Formation of the Third Coalition

The Third Anti-French Coalition began with the St. Petersburg Union Treaty concluded on April 11 (23), 1805 between Russia and Great Britain. Both sides had to try to attract other powers to the alliance. Great Britain pledged to assist the coalition with its fleet and provide the Allied powers with a cash subsidy of £1,250,000 annually for every 100,000 men. Subsequently, Austria, Sweden, the Kingdom of Naples and Portugal joined the Third Coalition. Spain, Bavaria and Italy fought on the side of France. The Prussian king remained neutral.

17. Liquidation of the Ligurian Republic

On June 4, 1805, Napoleon liquidated the Ligurian Republic. Genoa and Luca were annexed to France.

18. The beginning of the Russian-Austro-French war of 1805

Until the end of the summer of 1805, Napoleon was confident that he would have to cross to England. In Boulogne, on the English Channel, everything was ready for the landing. However, on August 27, the emperor received news that Russian troops had already moved to join the Austrians, and that the Austrians were ready for an offensive war against him. Realizing that there was now nothing to even dream about landing, Napoleon raised an army and moved it from the shores of the English Channel to the east. The Allies did not expect such swiftness and were taken by surprise.

19. Disaster near Ulm

At the beginning of October, the corps of Soult, Lanna and Murat's cavalry crossed the Danube and appeared in the rear of the Austrian army. Some of the Austrians managed to escape, but the main mass was thrown back by the French to the Ulm fortress. On October 20, the commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, General Mack, surrendered to Napoleon with all military supplies, artillery and banners. In total, about 60 thousand Austrian soldiers were captured in a short time.

20. Battle of Trafalgar

On October 21, 1805, a naval battle took place between the English and Franco-Spanish fleets at Cape Trafalgar near Cadiz. French Admiral Villeneuve lined up his ships in one line. However, the wind that day made their movement difficult. The English Admiral Nelson, taking advantage of this, moved forward several of the fastest ships, and the British fleet followed them in two columns in marching formation. The chain of enemy ships was broken in several places. Having lost formation, they became easy prey for the British. Of the 40 ships, the Allies lost 22, the British - none. But during the battle, Admiral Nelson himself was mortally wounded. After the Trafalgar defeat, the dominance of the English fleet at sea became overwhelming. Napoleon had to forever abandon plans to cross the English Channel and war on English territory.

21. Battle of Austerlitz

On November 13, the French entered Vienna, crossed to the left bank of the Danube and attacked Kutuzov’s Russian army. With heavy rearguard battles, having lost up to 12 thousand people, Kutuzov retreated to Olmutz, where Emperors Alexander I and Franz I were located and where their main forces were preparing to take the battle. On December 2, a general battle took place in the hilly area around the Pratzen Heights, west of the village of Austerlitz. Napoleon foresaw that the Russians and Austrians would try to cut him off from the road to Vienna and from the Danube in order to encircle him or drive him north into the mountains. Therefore, he seemed to leave this part of his positions without cover and protection and deliberately pushed back his right flank, placing Davout’s corps on it. The emperor chose the Pratsen Heights as the direction of his main attack, opposite which he concentrated two-thirds of all his forces: the corps of Soult, Bernadotte and Murat. At dawn, the Allies launched an offensive against the French right flank, but met stubborn resistance from Davout. Emperor Alexander, by his order, sent Kolovrat’s corps, located on the Pratsen Heights, to help the attackers. Then the French went on the offensive and delivered a powerful blow to the center of the enemy position. Two hours later the Pratsen Heights were captured. Having deployed batteries on them, Napoleon opened murderous fire on the flank and rear of the allied forces, who began to retreat randomly across Lake Zachan. Many Russians were killed by grapeshot or drowned in ponds, others surrendered.

22. Treaty of Schönbrunn. Franco-Prussian Alliance

On December 15, an alliance treaty between France and Prussia was concluded in Schönbrunn, according to which Napoleon ceded Hanover, which had been taken from Great Britain, to Frederick William III. For patriots, this treaty seemed insulting. Indeed, the taking of Hanover from the hands of Germany's enemy, while most Germans were mourning the defeat at Austerlitz, looked unseemly.

23. Peace of Presburg. Collapse of the Third Coalition

On December 26, a peace treaty between France and Austria was signed in Presburg. Francis I ceded the Venetian region, Istria and Dalmatia to the Kingdom of Italy. In addition, Austria was deprived of all its possessions in southwestern Germany and Tyrol in favor of Napoleon's allies (the former were divided between Baden and Württemberg, the latter was annexed to Bavaria). Emperor Franz recognized the titles of kings for the sovereigns of Bavaria and Württemberg.

24. French influence in Germany

Close rapprochement with France entailed major changes in internal relations in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and other states - the elimination of medieval zemstvo ranks, the abolition of many noble privileges, easing the lot of peasants, increasing religious tolerance, limiting the power of the clergy, destroying a mass of monasteries, various kinds of administrative , judicial, financial, military and educational reforms, introduction of the Napoleonic Code.

25. Expulsion of the Bourbons from Naples. Joseph Bonaparte

After the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg, the Neapolitan king Fernando IV fled to Sicily under the protection of the English fleet. In February 1806, the French army invaded southern Italy. In March, Napoleon deposed the Neapolitan Bourbons by decree and transferred the crown of Naples to his brother Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1808).

26. Kingdom of Holland. Louis Bonaparte

On June 5, 1806, Napoleon abolished the Batavian Republic and announced the creation of the Kingdom of Holland. He proclaimed his younger brother Louis Bonaparte (1806-1810) king. Contrary to expectations, Louis turned out to be a good sovereign. Having settled in The Hague, he began to take Dutch lessons, and generally took to heart the needs of the people under his control.

27. Formation of the Confederation of the Rhine

The Austerlitz victory made it possible for Napoleon to extend his power to all of western and part of central Germany. On July 12, 1806, sixteen German sovereigns (including Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden) declared secession from the Holy Roman Empire, signed an agreement to create the Union of the Rhine and elected Napoleon as their protector. In the event of war, they pledged to send 63 thousand soldiers to help France. The formation of the union was accompanied by a new mediatization, that is, the subordination of small immediate (immediat) holders of the supreme power of large sovereigns.

28. Liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire

The Confederation of the Rhine made the continued existence of the Holy Roman Empire meaningless. On August 6, 1806, Emperor Franz, at the request of Napoleon, renounced the title of Roman Emperor and freed all members of the empire from the duties imposed on them by the imperial constitution.

29. Cooling between France and Prussia

The Treaty of Schönbrunn did not lead to a rapprochement between France and Prussia. The interests of the two countries constantly clashed in Germany. Napoleon persistently prevented the formation of the “northern German alliance”, which Frederick William III tried to organize. Considerable annoyance in Berlin was caused by the fact that, having attempted peace negotiations with Great Britain, Napoleon expressed his readiness to return Hanover to her.

30. Folding of the Fourth Coalition

Great Britain and Russia did not give up attempts to win Prussia over to their side. Their efforts were soon crowned with success. On June 19 and July 12, secret union declarations were signed between Russia and Prussia. In the fall of 1806, the Fourth Anti-French Coalition formed, consisting of Great Britain, Sweden, Prussia, Saxony and Russia.

31. The beginning of the Russian-Prussian-French war of 1806-1807.

Every day the war party in Prussia became more numerous. Pushed by her, the king dared to take decisive action. On October 1, 1806, he addressed Napoleon with an arrogant ultimatum, in which he ordered him to withdraw his troops from Germany. Napoleon rejected all of Frederick William's demands, and war began on October 6. The timing was extremely unfortunate for her, since Russia had not yet had time to transfer its troops to the west. Prussia found itself alone with the enemy, and the emperor took full advantage of his position.

32. Battles of Jena and Auerstedt

On October 8, 1806, Napoleon ordered the invasion of Prussia's allied Saxony. On October 14, the main forces of the French army attacked the Prussians and Saxons near Jena. The Germans stubbornly defended themselves, but, in the end, they were overthrown and turned to mass flight. At the same time, Marshal Davout at Auerstedt defeated another Prussian army under the command of the Duke of Brunswick. When news of this double defeat spread, panic and disintegration in the Prussian army became complete. No one thought about resistance anymore and everyone fled in front of the rapidly approaching Napoleon. First-class fortresses, abundantly supplied with everything necessary for a long siege, surrendered at the first request of the French marshals. On October 27, Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. On November 8, the last Prussian fortress, Magdeburg, capitulated. The entire campaign against Prussia took exactly a month. Europe, which still remembered the Seven Years' War and the heroic struggle of Frederick II against numerous enemies, was shocked by this lightning massacre.

33. Continental blockade

Impressed by his triumph, Napoleon signed the Berlin decree on the “blockade of the British Isles” on November 21, which prohibited all trade and all relations with Great Britain. This decree was sent to all states dependent on the empire. However, at first the blockade did not have the consequences for Great Britain that the emperor had hoped for. Complete dominance over the ocean opened up a huge market in the American colonies for English manufacturers. Industrial activity not only did not stop, but continued to develop feverishly.

34. Battles of Pultusk and Preussisch-Eylau

In November 1806, the French, following the retreating Prussians, entered Poland. On the 28th, Murat occupied Warsaw. On December 26, the first major battle took place with the Russian corps of Bennigsen near Pultusk, which ended inconclusively. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It occurred on February 8, 1807 near Preussisch-Eylau. However, complete victory again did not work out - despite the huge losses (about 26 thousand people), Bennigsen retreated in perfect order. Napoleon, having sacrificed up to 30 thousand of his soldiers, was as far from success as last year. The French had to spend a difficult winter in a completely devastated Poland.

35. Battle of Friedland

The Russian-French war resumed in June 1807 and this time was very short. Napoleon moved to Königsberg. Bennigsen had to rush to his defense and concentrated his troops near the town of Friedland. On June 14, he had to fight in a very disadvantageous position. The Russians were driven back with huge losses. Almost all of their artillery was in the hands of the French. Bennigsen led his frustrated army to the Neman and managed to retreat across the river before the French approached. Napoleon stood on the border of the Russian Empire. But he was not yet ready to cross it.

36. World of Tilsit

On June 19, a truce was concluded. On June 25, Napoleon and Alexander I met for the first time on a raft in the middle of the Neman, and talked face to face for about an hour in a covered pavilion. Negotiations then continued in Tilsit, and on July 7 a peace treaty was signed. Alexander I had to break off relations with Great Britain and join the continental blockade. He also promised to withdraw his troops from Moldova and Wallachia. The conditions that Napoleon dictated to the Prussian king were much harsher: Prussia lost all its possessions on the western bank of the Elbe (on these lands Napoleon formed the kingdom of Westphalia, assigning it to his brother Jerome; Hanover and the cities of Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck were annexed directly to France) . She also lost most of the Polish provinces, united into the Duchy of Warsaw, which went into a personal union with the King of Saxony. An exorbitant indemnity was imposed on Prussia. Until it was fully paid, occupation troops remained in the country. This was one of the harshest peace treaties Napoleon ever concluded.

37. Beginning of the Anglo-Danish war of 1807-1814.

After the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, a persistent rumor appeared that Denmark was ready to enter the war on the side of Napoleon. In view of this, the British government demanded that the Danes transfer their navy to the “deposit” of the English government. Denmark refused. Then, on August 14, 1807, an English force landed near Copenhagen. The Danish capital was blocked from land and sea. On September 2, a brutal bombardment of the city began (in three days, 14 thousand gun and rocket salvoes were fired; the city was burned out by a third, 2,000 civilians were killed). On September 7, the Copenhagen garrison laid down its arms. The British captured the entire Danish navy, but the Danish government refused to capitulate and turned to France for help. At the end of October 1807, a Franco-Danish military alliance was concluded and Denmark officially joined the continental blockade.

38. Beginning of the Franco-Spanish-Portuguese War of 1807-1808.

Having finished with Russia and Prussia, Napoleon demanded that Portugal also join the continental blockade. Prince Regent John (who had effectively ruled the country since 1792, after his mother Queen Maria I began to show signs of insanity) refused. This became the reason for the start of the war. Portugal was invaded by the French corps of General Junot, supported by Spanish troops. On November 29, Junot entered Lisbon without a fight. Two days earlier, Prince Regent João had left the capital and sailed to Brazil. The whole country came under French rule.

39. The beginning of the Anglo-Russian war of 1807-1812.

On November 7, 1807, Russia declared war on Great Britain, forced to take this step by the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit. Although the war formally lasted five years, there was no real hostilities between the opponents. Britain's ally Sweden suffered much more from this war.

40. Beginning of the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809.

Having joined the Fourth Coalition in April 1805, the Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf (1792-1809) firmly adhered to the alliance with Great Britain. Thus, after the conclusion of the Peace of Tilsit, he found himself in a camp hostile to Russia. This circumstance gave Alexander I a convenient reason to take Finland from Sweden. On February 18, 1808, Russian troops suddenly captured Helsingfors. In March Svartholm was occupied. On April 26, Sveaborg surrendered after a siege. But then (largely thanks to the bold attacks of the Finnish partisans) the Russian troops began to suffer defeats. The war became protracted.

41. Aranjuez performance. Abdication of Charles IV

Under the pretext of military action against Portugal, Napoleon sent more and more troops to Spain. The all-powerful favorite of Queen Godoy surrendered San Sebastian, Pamplona and Barcelona to the French. In March 1808, Murat approached Madrid. On the night of March 17-18, an uprising broke out against the king and Godoy in the city of Aranjuez, where the Spanish court was located. It soon spread to Madrid. On March 19, Godoy resigned, and Charles abdicated the throne in favor of his son Fernando VII, who was considered the leader of the patriotic party. On March 23, Madrid was occupied by the French.

Napoleon did not recognize the coup that had taken place in Spain. He summoned Charles IV and Fernando VII to France, ostensibly to settle the issue of succession to the throne. Meanwhile, a rumor spread in Madrid that Murat intended to take the last heir of the king, Infanta Francisco, out of Spain. This was the reason for the uprising. On May 2, the townspeople, led by patriotic officers, opposed 25 thousand. French garrison. Fierce street fighting continued throughout the day. By the morning of May 3, the uprising was suppressed by the French, but news of it shook up all of Spain.

43. Deposition of Fernando VII. King Joseph of Spain

Meanwhile, the worst fears of the Spanish patriots came true. On May 5, in Bayonne, Charles IV and Fernando VII, under pressure from Napoleon, abdicated the throne in his favor. On May 10, Napoleon proclaimed his brother Joseph (1808-1813) king of Spain. However, even before his arrival in Madrid, a powerful liberation war broke out in the country.

44. Bayonne Constitution of 1808

To reconcile the Spaniards with the coup, Napoleon granted them a constitution. Spain was declared a constitutional monarchy with a Senate, a Council of State and a Cortes. Of the 172 deputies of the Cortes, 80 were appointed by the king. The rights of the Cortes were not precisely established. The Constitution limited the primogeniture, abolished internal customs and established a uniform tax system; abolished feudal legal proceedings and introduced uniform civil and criminal legislation for Spain and its colonies.

45. Annexation of Tuscany to France

After the death of King Luigi I (1801-1803) in May 1803, his widow Queen Maria Luisa, daughter of the Spanish King Charles IV, ruled for four years in Etruria. On December 20, 1807, the kingdom was liquidated. On May 29, 1808, Etruria, which was returned to its former name Tuscany, was annexed to the French Empire. In March 1809, the administration of this region was entrusted to Napoleon's sister, Princess Elisa Baciocchi, who received the title of Grand Duchess of Tuscany.

46. National uprising in Spain

It seemed that with the accession of Joseph Bonaparte the conquest of Spain was over. But in fact, everything was just beginning. After the suppression of the May uprising, the French constantly encountered in this country countless, almost daily manifestations of the most frantic fanatical hatred. In June 1808, a powerful uprising began in Andalusia and Galicia. General Dupont moved against the rebels, but was surrounded by them and on July 20 surrendered along with his entire detachment near Baylen. The impression made by this event on the conquered countries was enormous. On July 31, the French left Madrid.

47. British landing in Portugal. Battle of Vimeiro

In June 1808, an uprising broke out in Portugal. On June 19, the Supreme Government Junta was established in Porto. In August, British troops landed in Portugal. On August 21, the English General Wellesley (the future Duke of Wellington) defeated the French Governor-General of Portugal, Junot, at Vimeira. On 30 August, Junot signed an agreement in Sintra for the evacuation of all French troops from Portuguese territory. The British occupied Lisbon

48. Murat on the Neapolitan throne

After Joseph Bonaparte moved to Spain, Napoleon on August 1, 1808 proclaimed his son-in-law Marshal Joachim Murat (1808-1815) king of Naples.

49. Erfurt meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I

From September 27 to October 14, 1808, negotiations were held in Erfurt between the French and Russian emperors. Alexander firmly and decisively expressed his demands to Napoleon. Under his pressure, Napoleon abandoned plans for the restoration of Poland, promised not to interfere in the affairs of the Danube principalities, and agreed to the annexation of Finland to Russia. In return, Alexander pledged to support France against Austria and cemented an offensive alliance against Great Britain. As a result, both emperors achieved their intended goals, but at the same time made concessions that they could not and did not want to forgive each other.

50. Napoleon's campaign in Spain. French victories

In the autumn of 1808, all of Southern Spain was engulfed in the fire of an uprising. Here a real rebel army was formed, armed with English weapons. The French only retained control over the northern part of the country up to the Ebro River. Napoleon gathered an army of 100,000 and personally led it beyond the Pyrenees. On November 10, he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Spaniards near Burgos. On December 4, the French entered Madrid. On January 16, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated the English expeditionary force of General Moore at La Coruña. But the resistance did not weaken. Zaragoza stubbornly repelled all attacks of the French for several months. Finally, in February 1809, Marshal Lannes entered the city over the bodies of its defenders, but after that, for another three weeks there were stubborn battles for literally every house. The brutalized soldiers had to kill everyone indiscriminately - women, children and the elderly. Looking out over the streets littered with corpses, Lann said: “Such a victory only brings sadness!”

51. Russian offensive in Finland

By November 1808, the Russian army occupied all of Finland. On March 2, 1809, advancing on the ice of the frozen Botanical Bay, General Bagration captured the Åland Islands. Another Russian detachment under the command of Barclay de Tolly crossed the bay at Kvarken. After this, the Åland Truce was concluded.

52. Fifth Coalition

In the spring of 1809, the British managed to put together a new anti-French coalition. In addition to Great Britain and the rebel Spanish army, Austria joined it.

53. Austro-French War of 1809

On April 9, the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles invaded Bavaria from the Czech Republic. On April 19-23, major battles took place at Abensberg, Eckmuhl and Regensburg. Having lost about 45 thousand people in them, Charles retreated to the left bank of the Danube. Pursuing the enemy, Napoleon occupied Vienna on May 13 and tried to cross the Danube. On May 21-22, a fierce battle took place near the villages of Aspern and Essling, in which the French suffered heavy losses. Among many others, Marshal Lannes was mortally wounded. After this defeat, hostilities ceased for a month and a half. Both sides were preparing for a decisive battle. It happened on July 5-6 on the banks of the Danube near the village of Wagram. Archduke Charles was defeated, and on July 11 Emperor Franz offered Napoleon a truce.

54. Liquidation of the Papal State by Napoleon

In February 1808, French troops reoccupied Rome. On May 17, 1809, Napoleon annexed the papal state to France and declared Rome a free city. Pope Pius VII condemned the “robbers of the inheritance of St. Petra." In response, on July 5, French military authorities took the pope to Fontainebleau near Paris.

55. Peace of Friedrichsham. Annexation of Finland to Russia

Meanwhile, Russia brought the war with Sweden to victory. On May 20, 1809, the Swedes were defeated at Umeå. After this, the fighting was sluggish. On September 5 (17), a peace treaty was signed in Friedrichsham. Sweden ceded Finland and the Åland Islands to Russia. She had to break her alliance with Great Britain and join the continental blockade.

56. World of Schönbrunn. End of the Fifth Coalition

On October 14, 1809, a peace treaty between Austria and France was signed in Schönbrunn. Austria ceded Salzburg and some neighboring lands to Bavaria, Western Galicia, Krakow and Lublin to the Duchy of Warsaw, Eastern Galicia (Tarnopol District) to Russia. Western Carinthia, Carniola, Gorizia, Istria, Dalmatia and Ragusa, torn away from Austria, formed the autonomous Illyrian provinces under the supreme authority of Napoleon.

57. Napoleon's marriage to Marie Louise

On April 1, 1810, Napoleon married the eldest daughter of Emperor Franz I, Marie Louise, after which Austria became France's closest ally.

58. Annexation of the Netherlands to France

The attitude of King Louis Bonaparte towards the continental blockade always remained sharply negative, since it threatened the Netherlands with terrible decline and desolation. Louis turned a blind eye to the flourishing smuggling for a long time, despite his brother’s severe reprimands. Then, on June 9, 1810, Napoleon announced the inclusion of the kingdom into the French Empire. The Netherlands was divided into nine French departments, and suffered severely under the Napoleonic regime.

59. Election of Bernadotte as heir to the Swedish throne

Since the Swedish king Charles XIII was old and childless, the deputies of the Riksdag became concerned about electing an heir to the throne. After some hesitation, they chose the French Marshal Bernadotte. (In 1806, during the war in Northern Germany, more than a thousand Swedes were captured by Bernadotte, who commanded one of the imperial corps; he treated them with special attention; the Swedish officers were received by the marshal with such courtesy that later this all of Sweden found out). On August 21, 1810, the Riksdag elected Bernadotte as crown prince. He converted to Lutheranism and, upon arriving in Sweden on November 5, was adopted by Charles XIII. Later, due to illness (dementia), the king withdrew from state affairs, entrusting them to his stepson. The choice of the Riksdag turned out to be very successful. Although Karl Johan (as Bernadotte was now called) did not learn to speak Swedish until his death, he was very good at defending Swedish interests. While most of his subjects dreamed of returning Finland captured by Russia, he set his goal to acquire Danish Norway and began to methodically strive for it.

60. Fighting in 1809-1811. on the Iberian Peninsula

On July 28, 1809, the English army of General Wellesley, with the support of the Spaniards and Portuguese, had a fierce battle with the French near Talavera de la Reina. Success was on the side of the British (Wellesley received the title of Viscount Talavera and Lord Wellington for this victory). Then the stubborn war continued with varying success. On November 12, 1809, Marshal Soult defeated the Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish troops at Ocaña. In January 1810 he took Seville and besieged Cadiz, although he was never able to capture the city. In the same year, Marshal Massena invaded Portugal, but was defeated on September 27, 1810 by Wellington at Vuzaco. In March 1811, Soult captured the strong fortress of Badajoz, which guarded the road to Portugal, and on May 16, 1811, he was defeated by the British and Portuguese at Albuera.

61. The brewing of a new Franco-Russian war

Already in January 1811, Napoleon began to seriously think about war with Russia. This, among many other things, was prompted by the new customs tariff introduced by Alexander I in 1810, which imposed high duties on French imports. Alexander then allowed ships of neutral countries to sell their goods in his ports, which negated all of Napoleon’s enormous costs of maintaining the continental blockade. Added to this were constant clashes of interests between the two powers in Poland, Germany and Turkey. On February 24, 1812, Napoleon concluded an alliance treaty with Prussia, which was supposed to field 20 thousand soldiers against Russia. On March 14, a military alliance was concluded with Austria, according to which the Austrians pledged to field 30 thousand soldiers against Russia.

62. Napoleon's invasion of Russia

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 (24) with the passage of the French army across the Neman. At this time, about 450 thousand soldiers were directly subordinate to Napoleon (another 140 thousand arrived in Russia later). Russian troops (about 220 thousand) under the command of Barclay de Tolly were divided into three independent armies (1st - under the command of Barclay himself, 2nd - Bagration, 3rd - Tormasov). The emperor hoped to separate them, surround and destroy each one separately. Trying to avoid this, Barclay and Bagration began to hastily retreat deeper into the country. On August 3 (15), they successfully united near Smolensk. On August 4 (16), Napoleon pulled his main forces to this city and began its assault. For two days the Russians fiercely defended Smolensk, but on the evening of 5 (17) Barclay ordered the retreat to continue.

63. Peace of Orebrus

On July 18, 1812, in the city of Örebro (Sweden), Great Britain and Russia signed a peace treaty, ending the Anglo-Russian War of 1807-1812.

64. Kutuzov. battle of Borodino

On August 8 (20), Alexander gave main command of the army to General Kutuzov. (On September 11 he was promoted to field marshal). On August 23 (September 4), Napoleon was informed that Kutuzov had taken a position near the village of Borodino, and his rearguard was defending a fortified redoubt near the village of Shevardino. On August 24 (September 5) the French drove the Russians out of Shevardino and began to prepare for a general battle. At Borodino, Kutuzov had 120 thousand soldiers with 640 guns. His position was 8 kilometers long. Its center rested on Kurgan Heights. Flushes were erected on the left flank. After inspecting the Russian fortifications, Napoleon, who by this time had 135 thousand soldiers with 587 guns, decided to deliver the main blow in the flush area, break through the position of the Russian army here and go to its rear. In this direction he concentrated the corps of Murat, Davout, Ney, Junot and the guard (a total of 86 thousand with 400 guns). The battle began at dawn on August 26 (September 7). Beauharnais launched a diversionary attack on Borodino. At six in the morning, Davout launched an assault on the flushes, but, despite his triple superiority in forces, he was repulsed. At seven in the morning the attack was repeated. The French took the left flush, but were again repulsed and driven back. Then Napoleon brought the corps of Ney, Junot and Murat into battle. Kutuzov also began to transfer reserves and troops from the right flank to Bagration. At eight in the morning the French broke into the flushes for the second time, and were again driven back. Then, before 11 o'clock, four more unsuccessful attacks were made. The murderous fire of Russian batteries from Kurgan Heights inflicted severe damage on the French. By 12 o'clock Napoleon had concentrated two-thirds of his army against Kutuzov's left flank. Only after this the French were finally able to master flushes. Bagration, who defended them, was mortally wounded. Developing success, the emperor moved the attack to Kurgan Heights, moving 35 thousand soldiers against it. At this critical moment, Kutuzov sent the cavalry corps of Platov and Uvarov to bypass Napoleon’s left flank. Repelling this attack, Napoleon delayed the assault on Kurgan Heights for two hours. Finally, at four o'clock, Beauharnais's corps captured the heights with the third attack. Contrary to expectations, there was no breakthrough in the Russian position. The Russians were only pushed back, but continued to stubbornly defend. Napoleon failed to achieve decisive success in any direction - the enemy retreated, but was not defeated. Napoleon did not want to move the guard into battle and at six o’clock in the evening withdrew the troops to their original positions. In this unresolved battle, the French lost about 40 thousand people, the Russians - about the same. The next day, Kutuzov refused to continue the battle and retreated further to the east.

65. Napoleon in Moscow

On September 2 (14), Napoleon entered Moscow without a fight. The very next day, severe fires broke out in the city. By the evening of September 6 (18), the fire, having destroyed most of the houses, began to weaken. However, from this time on, the French began to experience severe food difficulties. Foraging outside the city due to the action of Russian partisans also proved difficult. Horses were dying by the hundreds a day. Discipline in the army was falling. Meanwhile, Alexander I stubbornly did not want to make peace and was ready to make any sacrifices for the sake of victory. Napoleon decided to leave the burned-out capital and move the army closer to the western border. The sudden attack of the Russians on October 6 (18) on Murat's corps, standing in front of the village of Tarutino, finally strengthened him in this decision. The next day, the emperor gave the order to leave Moscow.

66. French retreat

At first, Napoleon intended to retreat along the New Kaluga Road through the provinces that had not yet been devastated. But Kutuzov prevented this. On October 12 (24), a stubborn battle took place near Maloyaroslavets. The city changed hands eight times. In the end, he remained with the French, but Kutuzov was ready to continue the battle. Napoleon realized that he would not enter Kaluga without a new decisive battle, and ordered a retreat along the old ruined road to Smolensk. The country was terribly devastated. In addition to the acute shortage of food, Napoleon's army began to be plagued by severe frosts (winter in 1812 began unusually early). The Cossacks and partisans greatly disturbed the French. The morale of the soldiers fell every day. The retreat turned into a real flight. They no longer paid attention to the wounded and sick. Frosts, hunger and partisans exterminated thousands of soldiers. The entire road was strewn with corpses. Kutuzov attacked the retreating enemies several times and inflicted heavy damage on them. On November 3-6 (15-18), a bloody battle took place near Krasnoye, which cost Napoleon 33 thousand soldiers.

67. Crossing the Berezina. Death of the "Great Army"

From the very beginning of the French retreat, a plan emerged to encircle Napoleon on the banks of the Berezina. Chichagov's army, arriving from the south, captured the crossing near Borisov. Napoleon ordered the construction of two new bridges near the village of Studenki. On November 14-15 (26-27), the most combat-ready units managed to cross to the west bank. On the evening of 16 (28) the crossing was attacked from both sides at once by the approaching Russian army. A terrible panic began. One of the bridges has failed. Many of those who remained on the eastern bank were killed by the Cossacks. Thousands more gave up. In total, Napoleon lost about 35 thousand people captured, wounded, killed, drowned and frozen on the Berezina. However, he himself, his guards and his marshals managed to escape the trap. The transition from the Berezina to the Neman also turned out to be terribly difficult due to severe frosts, hunger and constant attacks by partisans. As a result, on December 14-15 (26-27), no more than 30 thousand virtually unfit soldiers crossed the frozen ice across the Neman - the pitiful remnants of the former half-million-strong “Grand Army”.

68. Kalisz Union Treaty with Prussia. Sixth coalition

The news of the death of Napoleonic army in Russia caused a patriotic upsurge in Germany. On January 25, 1813, King Frederick William III fled from French-occupied Berlin to Breslau and from there secretly sent Field Marshal Knesebeck to Alexander I's headquarters in Kalisz to negotiate an alliance. On February 28, an alliance treaty was concluded, marking the beginning of the Sixth Coalition. On March 27, Frederick William declared war on France. The Prussian army actively participated in the fighting and made a significant contribution to the final victory over Napoleon.

69. Revival of the French army

The Moscow campaign caused irreparable damage to the power of the empire. 100 thousand of Napoleon's soldiers remained captive in Russia. Another 400 thousand - the flower of his army - were killed in battle or died during the retreat. However, Napoleon still had enormous resources and did not consider the war lost. Throughout the first months of 1813, he worked on the creation and organization of a new army. Two hundred thousand people gave him a call for recruits and the National Guard. Another two hundred thousand did not participate in the Russian campaign - they garrisoned in France and Germany. Now they were gathered into hulls, equipped and supplied with everything necessary. By mid-spring, the grandiose work was completed, and Napoleon left for Erfurt.

70. War in Saxony. Truce of Poyschwitz

Meanwhile, the Russians continued to make progress. By the end of January 1813, the entire territory of Poland up to the Vistula was cleared of the French. In February, the Russian army reached the banks of the Oder, and on March 4 captured Berlin. The French retreated beyond the Elbe. But the appearance of Napoleon at the front dramatically changed the situation. On May 2, near Lützen, the Russians and Prussians suffered their first defeat, losing up to 10 thousand people. Wittgenstein, the commander of the Allied army, retreated to the Spree River near Bautzen. After a stubborn battle on May 20-21, he retreated even further east beyond the Lebau River. Both sides were very tired. On June 4, a truce was concluded in Poischwitz by mutual agreement. It lasted until August 10.

71. Expansion of the Sixth Coalition

The allies spent the two-month respite on active diplomatic contacts with all European countries. As a result, the Sixth Coalition expanded and strengthened significantly. In mid-June, Britain pledged to support Russia and Prussia with large subsidies to continue the war. On June 22, the Swedish Crown Prince Bernadotte joined the anti-French alliance, having previously bargained for Norway for Sweden (since Denmark maintained an alliance with Napoleon, this claim met no objections). But it was much more important to win over Austria, which had significant military resources. Emperor Franz I did not immediately decide to break with his son-in-law. The final choice in favor of the coalition was made only on August 10. On August 12, Austria officially declared war on France.

72. Battles of Dresden, Katzbach, Kulm and Dennewitz

Shortly after the resumption of hostilities, a major battle took place near Dresden on August 26-27. Austrian Field Marshal Schwarzenberg was defeated and retreated. But on the very day of the Battle of Dresden, the Prussian General Blucher defeated the corps of Marshal MacDonald on the banks of the Katzbach. On August 30, Barclay de Tolly defeated the French near Kulm. Marshal Ney tried to break through to Berlin, but on September 6 he was defeated by Bernadotte in the battle of Dennevitz.

73. Battle of Leipzig

In mid-October, all Allied armies converged on Leipzig. Napoleon decided not to surrender the city without a fight. On October 16, the Allies attacked the French along the entire front. Napoleon stubbornly defended himself and repelled all attacks. Having lost 30 thousand people, neither side achieved success. There was no battle on October 17. The opponents pulled up reserves and changed positions. But if only 15 thousand people approached Napoleon, then two armies arrived to the allies, totaling 110 thousand. Now they had a large numerical superiority over the enemy. On the morning of October 18, the Allies simultaneously launched an attack from the south, north and east, but the main blow was delivered from the south. At the height of the battle, the entire Saxon army (who had unwillingly fought for Napoleon) suddenly went over to the enemy’s side and, deploying their cannons, began to shoot at the French. A little later, the Württemberg and Baden units behaved in the same way. On October 19, the emperor began his retreat. In just three days of fighting, he lost more than 80 thousand people and 325 guns.

74. Expulsion of the French from Germany. Collapse of the Confederation of the Rhine

The defeat at Leipzig deprived Napoleon of his last allies. Saxony capitulated. Württemberg and Bavaria joined the Sixth Coalition. The Confederation of the Rhine collapsed. When the emperor crossed the Rhine on November 2, he had no more than 40 thousand soldiers under arms. In addition to Hamburg and Magdeburg, by the beginning of 1814 the garrisons of all French fortresses in Germany surrendered.

75. Liberation of the Netherlands

Soon after the Battle of Leipzig, the Prussian corps of General Bülow and the Russian corps of Wintzingerode were moved against the French garrisons in Belgium and the Netherlands. On November 24, 1813, the Prussians and Cossacks occupied Amsterdam. At the end of November 1813, Prince Willem of Orange (son of Stadtholder Willem V) landed in Scheveningen. On December 2, he arrived in Amsterdam and was proclaimed here the sovereign sovereign of the Netherlands.

76. Swedish-Danish war. Kiel Peace Treaties

In December 1813, Crown Prince Bernadotte, at the head of Swedish troops, invaded Danish Holstein. On December 7, in the battle of Bornhoved (south of Kiel), Swedish cavalry forced the Danish troops to retreat. On January 14, 1814, the Danish king Frederick VI (1808-1839) concluded peace treaties with Sweden and Great Britain in Kiel. The Anglo-Danish Treaty officially ended the Anglo-Danish War of 1807-1814. According to the Swedish-Danish treaty, Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden, and in return received the island of Rügen and the right to Swedish Pomerania. The Norwegians themselves categorically refused to recognize this treaty.

77. Liberation of Spain

In April 1812, Wellington took Badajoz. On July 23, the British and Spanish partisans under the command of Empesinado defeated the French at the Battle of Arapiles (near Salamanca). On August 12, Wellington and Empesinado entered Madrid (in November 1812 the French returned the Spanish capital, but at the beginning of 1813 they were finally expelled from it). On June 21, 1813, the French gave the enemy a stubborn battle near Vittoria and retreated, abandoning all their artillery. By December 1813, the main forces of the French army were driven out of Spain.

78. War in France. Fall of Paris

In January 1814, the Allies crossed the Rhine. Napoleon could oppose the 200 thousand army of his opponents with no more than 70 thousand soldiers. But he fought with desperate tenacity and managed to inflict significant damage on the armies of Schwarzenberg and Blucher in a series of small battles. However, he was no longer able to change the course of the company. At the beginning of March, Napoleon found himself pushed back to Saint-Dizier. Taking advantage of this, the allied armies approached Paris and on March 25 defeated the corps of Marshals Marmont and Mortier, left by the emperor to protect the capital, at Fer-Champenoise. On the morning of March 30, fierce fighting began in the suburbs. They were stopped by Marmont and Mortier, who agreed to surrender the city without a fight. On March 31, Paris capitulated.

79. Abdication of Napoleon and restoration of the Bourbons in France

In early April, the French Senate issued a decree deposing Napoleon and establishing a provisional government. On April 6, the emperor abdicated the throne at Fontainebleau. On the same day, the Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, who was executed in 1793, king. On April 20, Napoleon himself went into honorable exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. On April 24, Louis landed in Calais and went to the castle of Saint-Ouen. Here he negotiated with the Senate delegation and concluded a compromise agreement with it on the transfer of power. They agreed that the Bourbons would reign over France on the basis of Divine right, but they would grant their subjects a Charter (constitution). All executive power was to remain in the hands of the king, and he agreed to share the legislative power with a bicameral parliament. On May 3, Louis made his ceremonial entry into Paris amid the ringing of bells and a cannon salute.

80. War in Lombardy. Murat and Beauharnais

In the summer of 1813, 50 thousand troops entered Italy. Austrian army. She was opposed by 45 thousand. army of the Viceroy of Italy Eugene Beauharnais. However, until the end of the year, no serious events occurred on this front. On January 8, 1814, the Neapolitan king Joachim Murat defected to the Sixth Coalition. On January 19, he occupied Rome, then Florence and Tuscany. However, Murat acted sluggishly, and his entry into the war did little to help the Austrians. Having learned of Napoleon's abdication, Beauharnais wanted to be crowned king of Italy himself. The Italian Senate strongly opposed this. On April 20, an uprising broke out in Milan, raised by liberals and disorganizing the entire defense of the viceroy. On April 24, Beauharnais made peace with the Austrians in Mantua, handed over Northern Italy to them, and he himself left for Bavaria. Lombardy returned to Austrian rule. In May, Murat withdrew his troops back to Naples.

81. Restoration of the Savoy dynasty

In May 1814, the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel I (1802-1821), returned to Turin. The day after the restoration, the king promulgated an edict, which abolished all French institutions and laws, returning noble positions, positions in the army, feudal rights and the payment of tithes.

82. Treaty of Paris 1814

On May 30, 1814, peace was signed between the participants of the Sixth Coalition and Louis XVIII, who had returned from exile, returning France to the borders of 1792. It was specifically stipulated that all the details of the post-war structure of Europe would be discussed two months later at the Congress of Vienna.

83. Swedish-Norwegian war. Agreement at Moss

Sweden's allies in the Sixth Coalition did not recognize Norway's independence. With their approval, on July 30, 1814, Crown Prince Bernadotte began war against the Norwegians. On August 4, the Fredriksten fortress was taken. The Norwegian fleet was blocked in the Oslofjord. This was the end of the fighting. On August 14, in Moss, a truce and a convention were concluded between the Norwegians and the Swedes, according to which Bernadotte promised to respect the Norwegian constitution, and the Norwegians agreed to elect a Swedish king to the Norwegian throne.

84. Opening of the Congress of Vienna

In September 1814, the coalition allies gathered in Vienna to discuss the post-war structure of Europe.

85. Swedish-Norwegian Union

On November 4, 1814, the Storting adopted the amended Norwegian constitution. The king's military and foreign policy powers were limited, but the foreign policy of the united kingdoms fell entirely under the jurisdiction of the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The king received the right to appoint a viceroy to Norway who represented the absent monarch. On the same day, the Storting elected the Swedish king Charles XIII as king of Norway.

86. France after restoration

Few of the French sincerely welcomed the restoration, but the Bourbons did not encounter organized opposition. But the nobles returning from emigration caused strong indignation. Many of them were tough and irreconcilable. The royalists demanded the massive removal of officials and the dissolution of the army, the restoration of “former liberties,” the dissolution of the chambers and the abolition of freedom of the press. They also sought the return of lands sold during the revolution and compensation for the hardships they had suffered. In short, they wanted a return to the regime of 1788. The majority of the nation could not agree to such huge concessions. Passions in society were heating up. The irritation was especially great in the army.

87. "One Hundred Days"

Napoleon was well aware of the changing public mood in France and decided to take advantage of it. On February 26, 1815, he put the soldiers he had (there were about 1000 people in total) on ships, left Elbe and sailed to the shores of France. On March 1, the detachment landed in Juan Bay, from where it moved to Paris. The troops sent against Napoleon, regiment after regiment, went over to the side of the rebels. News came from all sides that cities and entire provinces were joyfully surrendering to the rule of the emperor. On March 19, Louis XVIII fled the capital, and the next day Napoleon solemnly entered Paris. On April 23, a new constitution was published. Compared to the charter of Louis XVIII, it significantly reduced the electoral qualification and gave more liberal freedoms. On May 25, the new chambers opened their meetings, but did not have time to make any important decisions.

88. Murat's campaign. Battle of Tolentin

Having learned about Napoleon's landing, the Neapolitan king Murat declared war on Austria on March 18. With an army of 30 thousand, he moved to the north of Italy, occupied Rome, Bologna and a number of other cities. The decisive battle with the Austrians took place on May 2, 1815 at Tolentino. An uprising broke out in southern Italy in favor of the former king of Naples, Fernando. Murat's power collapsed. On May 19, disguised as a sailor, he fled from Naples to France.

89. Seventh coalition. Battle of Waterloo

All powers participating in the Congress of Vienna immediately formed the Seventh Coalition against Napoleon. But only the armies of Prussia, the Netherlands and Great Britain actually took part in the fighting. On June 12, Napoleon went to the army to begin the last campaign in his life. On June 16, a big battle took place with the Prussians at Ligny. Having lost 20 thousand soldiers, the Prussian commander-in-chief Blucher retreated. He, however, was not defeated. Napoleon ordered Grouchy's 36,000-strong corps to pursue the Prussians, and he himself turned against Wellington's army. The decisive battle took place on June 18, 22 kilometers from Brussels near the village of Waterloo. At that moment Napoleon had 69 thousand soldiers with 243 guns, Wellington had 72 thousand with 159 guns. The fight was extremely stubborn. For a long time, neither side was successful. Around noon, the vanguard of the Prussian army appeared on Napoleon’s right flank - it was Blucher, who had managed to break away from Grusha and was now rushing to help Wellington. The Emperor sent Lobau's corps and the guard against the Prussians, and he himself threw his last reserve at the British - 10 battalions of the old guard. However, he failed to break the enemy's stubbornness. Meanwhile, the Prussian onslaught intensified. Three of their corps arrived in time (about 30 thousand people), and Blucher, one after another, brought them into battle. At about 8 o'clock in the evening, Wellington launched a general offensive, and the Prussians finally overturned Napoleon's right flank. The French retreat soon turned into a rout. The battle, and with it the entire company, were hopelessly lost.

90. Napoleon's second abdication

On June 21, Napoleon returned to Paris. The next day he abdicated the throne. At first, the emperor intended to flee to America, but, realizing that he would never be allowed to escape, on July 15 he himself went to the English ship Bellerophon and surrendered himself into the hands of the victors. It was decided to send him into exile on the remote island of St. Helena. (Napoleon died here in May 1821).

91. Decisions of the Congress of Vienna

The congress in the Austrian capital continued until June 9, 1815, when representatives of the eight leading powers signed the “Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.”

According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw formed by Napoleon with Warsaw.

Prussia abandoned Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of areas on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.

South Saxony remained under the rule of King Frederick Augustus I.

In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Confederation arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria.

Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; The thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg.

The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (which included the island of Sicily and Southern Italy), the Papal States, the duchies of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Luca and the Kingdom of Sardinia were restored to Italy, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice were returned.

Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded to include Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel (thus, the number of cantons reached 22). There was no central government, so Switzerland again became a union of small sovereign republics.

Denmark lost Norway, which went to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this.

Belgium was annexed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands and came under the rule of the Orange dynasty. Luxembourg also became part of this kingdom on the basis of a personal union.

Great Britain secured the Ionian Islands and Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, the islands of Saint Lucia and Tobago in the West Indies, the Seychelles and Ceylon in the Indian Ocean, and the Cape Colony in Africa; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.

92. "Holy Alliance"

At the end of the negotiations, Emperor Alexander I invited the Prussian king and the Austrian emperor to sign another agreement between themselves, which he called the “Holy Alliance” of sovereigns. Its essence was that the sovereigns mutually pledged to remain in eternal peace and always “give each other assistance, reinforcement and help, and govern their subjects like fathers of families” in the same spirit of brotherhood. The union, according to Alexander, was supposed to be the beginning of a new era for Europe - an era of eternal peace and unity. “There can no longer be English, French, Russian, Austrian policies,” he said later, “there is only one policy - a common one, which must be accepted by peoples and sovereigns for the common happiness...”

93. Treaty of Paris 1815

On November 20, 1815, a peace treaty was signed in Paris between France and the powers of the Seventh Coalition. According to it, France returned to the borders of 1790, and an indemnity of 700 million francs was imposed on it.

She pushed anti-feudal, anti-absolutist, national liberation movements in European countries. The Napoleonic wars play a huge role in this.
The French bourgeoisie, striving for a dominant position in governing the country, was dissatisfied with the regime of the Directory and sought to establish a military dictatorship.
The young Corsican general Napoleon Bonaparte was better suited to the role of military dictator. A talented and brave military man from an impoverished noble family, he was an ardent supporter of the revolution, participated in the suppression of counter-revolutionary protests by the royalists, and therefore the bourgeois leaders trusted him. Under the command of Napoleon, the French army in Northern Italy defeated the Austrian invaders.
Having carried out a coup on November 9, 1799, the big bourgeoisie was supposed to have firm power, which it entrusted to the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte. He begins to implement domestic and foreign policies using authoritarian methods. Gradually, all power is concentrated in his hands.
In 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor of France under the name. The dictatorship of the imperial power strengthened the position of the bourgeoisie and opposed the return of feudal orders.
The foreign policy of Napoleon I is the world domination of France in the military-political and commercial-industrial fields. Napoleon's main rival and adversary was England, which did not want to upset the balance of power in Europe, and it needed to preserve its colonial possessions. England's task in the fight against Napoleon was his overthrow and the return of the Bourbons.
The peace treaty concluded in Amiens in 1802 was a temporary respite, and already in 1803 hostilities resumed. If in land battles the advantage was on Napoleon's side, then at sea the English fleet dominated, which in 1805 dealt a crushing blow to the Franco-Spanish fleet at Cape Trafalgar.
In fact, the French fleet ceased to exist, after which France declared a continental blockade of England. This decision prompted the creation of an anti-French coalition, which included England, Russia, Austria and the Kingdom of Naples.
The first battle between France and coalition forces took place at Austerlitz on November 20, 1805, called the Battle of Three Emperors. Napoleon won, and the Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist, and France received Italy at its disposal.
In 1806, Napoleon invaded Prussia, which contributed to the emergence of the fourth anti-French coalition from England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden. But Prussia is defeated at Jena and Auerstedt in 1806, and Napoleon occupies Berlin and most of Prussia. On the occupied territory, he creates the Rhine Confederation of 16 German states under his auspices.
Russia continued to conduct military operations in East Prussia, which did not bring it success. On July 7, 1807, she was forced to sign the Peace of Tilsit, thereby recognizing all the conquests of France.
From the conquered Polish lands on the territory of Prussia, Napoleon creates the Duchy of Warsaw. At the end of 1807, Napoleon occupied Portugal and launched an invasion of Spain. The Spanish people opposed the French invaders. The residents of Zaragoza especially distinguished themselves by withstanding the blockade of Napoleon's army of fifty thousand.
The Austrians tried to take revenge and began hostilities in 1809, but were defeated at the Battle of Wagram and were forced to conclude the humiliating Peace of Schönbrunn.
By 1810, Napoleon had reached the zenith of his dominance in Europe and began to prepare for war with Russia, which remained the only power beyond his control.
In June 1812, he crossed the border of Russia, moved towards Moscow and occupied it. But already at the beginning of October he realizes that he has lost the decisive battle and flees Russia, leaving his army to the mercy of fate.
The European powers unite into a sixth coalition and deal a crushing blow to the French at Leipzig. This battle, which threw Napoleon back into France, was called the Battle of Nations.
Allied troops captured and Napoleon I was exiled to the island. Elbe. A peace treaty was signed on May 30, 1814, and France lost all captured territories.
Napoleon managed to escape, gather an army and capture Paris. His revenge lasted 100 days and ended in complete defeat.

We know that in the history of the world, there have been various great commanders and conquerors of all times and peoples. They changed the entire course of history and also influenced the political map of the world.

One such great commander we wanted to write about was Napoleon Bonaparte. He was a talented general of the French artillery and the ruler of France with the monarchical title of Emperor under the name Napoleon the First.

His activities were based on strengthening the power and greatness of France. He changed the territory of France, expanding its borders and annexing other European lands to the country's possessions. These were a kind of territorial claims of the French Empire during the reign of Napoleon.

This famous short man in a gray frock coat influenced all European countries. Bonaparte's expansionist policy helped the French bourgeoisie to gain enormous benefits from the results of victorious military campaigns.

General Bonaparte received his high military rank, as you know if you have studied history, my dear readers, after defeating the royalist supporters of the Bourbon monarchy in 1793 with volleys of grapeshot from cannons. These were the so-called cannonballs. Cannons were also used on masted sailing ships of the time.

Conquests of territories by the French army

In 1796, after his previous military achievements, Napoleon Bonaparte led a military expedition and set off on an Italian campaign. As a result of this campaign, the entire territory of Italy came under French rule. The Kingdom of Naples was created on this territory, where Napoleon sent his Marshal Marat as King of Naples.

In 1798, Napoleon prepared and equipped a new military expedition to Egypt. This military campaign was a success until the commander himself left his army. French troops sailed across the entire Mediterranean Sea and went to Egypt, capturing the capital there - Alexandria. Unfortunately, Napoleon's army was unable to fully complete its military mission in Egypt, as the British destroyed the French ships. Because of this, Napoleon had to quickly leave and abandon his army. French troops were finally defeated in Egypt by 1801, also suffering defeat at Aboukir.

In 1799, as a result of the coup of 9 Thermidor, Napoleon became the first consul of the French Republic, although formally there were two more consuls in power after him. His rule was called a military-bureaucratic dictatorship.

In 1800 he won the Battle of Marengo. For some time in 1801, Napoleon concluded a truce with England.

In 1804, Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of France. And the following year, 1805, he won a brilliant victory in the Battle of Austerlitz against the Austrian and Russian allied army.

In 1806-1807, he captured the territory of Germany, which at that time in turn consisted of small states (principalities). One of the influential German states of that time was the Kingdom of Prussia. Napoleon and his troops entered the city of Jena, and also reached Berlin and defeated the Prussian army in a matter of minutes. He then advanced to Poland, which he turned into the Duchy of Warsaw.

In 1807, Napoleon concluded the Treaty of Tilsit with the Russian Emperor Alexander the First.

Consistently studying the chronology of the Napoleonic wars, we see that already in 1808 Napoleon captured Spain, subjugating the Spanish capital, Madrid. He overthrew the Bourbon rule there and installed his brother Joseph Bonaparte as the new king of Spain.

Napoleon Bonaparte's military campaign against Russia (the map of the campaign can be enlarged)

However, the collapse of Napoleon's empire began in 1812, when he suffered a crushing military defeat in his campaign against Russia. The Emperor had to abdicate twice, that is, give up his power, both in 1814 and in 1815 after his first exile on the island of Elba.

07.06.2012 14:09

At the beginning of 1799

November 9, 1799

February 9, 1801

June 18, 1804

April 11 (March 30, old style) 1805

In July 1806

Autumn 1807

In January 1809

By 1811

June 24 (12 old style) 1812

May 30, 1814

(Additional source: Military Encyclopedia. Chairman of the Main Editorial Commission S.B. Ivanov. Military Publishing House, Moscow. 8 vols., 2004)

Napoleonic Wars - wars of France during the Consulate of General Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1804) and the Empire of Napoleon I (1804-1815) against anti-French (anti-Napoleonic) coalitions of European states and individual countries of the world.1http://www.rian.ru/docs/ about/copyright.htmlPavel Balabanov.GIM Napoleon army battle action painting history exposition exhibitFrench troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812rian_photovisualrianRIA Novosti Reproduction of the drawing "French troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812." Patriotic War of 1812. State Historical Museum. Reproduction of the drawing "French troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812." Patriotic War of 1812. State Historical Museum.1French troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812. Reproduction of the drawing "French troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812." Patriotic War of 1812. State Historical Museum. French troops in Smolensk on October 28, 1812 http://visualrian.ru/images/item/631627/1812_chronology/20120607/639665113.html/1812_spravki/Inquiries/1812_referat/Abstracts/1812/War and Peace 1812/1812_ chronology/ Chronicle and diaries Napoleonic Wars: history and chronicleNapoleonic Wars - wars of France during the Consulate of General Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1804) and the Empire of Napoleon I (1804-1815) against anti-French (anti-Napoleonic) coalitions of European states and individual countries of the world. Napoleonic Wars: history and chronicle/authors//

Napoleonic Wars - wars of France during the Consulate of General Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1804) and the Empire of Napoleon I (1804-1815) against anti-French (anti-Napoleonic) coalitions of European states and individual countries of the world. Their main goal was to achieve military-political, commercial and industrial superiority of France in Europe, territorial conquests and the creation of a world empire centered in France. At first they were directed against the organizer of all anti-French coalitions - England (France's main rival) and its allies on the continent, and subsequently turned into a constant source of income for the Napoleonic government and the bourgeoisie closely associated with it.

At the beginning of 1799 France's short peaceful respite after Bonaparte's Italian campaign (1796-1797) ended and it entered the war with the 2nd anti-French coalition. Military operations began unsuccessfully, and by the autumn of 1799 the situation in France was difficult. The military expedition of French troops in Egypt continued, and the expeditionary army, cut off from the metropolis under the command of General Jean Kleber, was in a critical situation after Bonaparte's departure in 1799 to Paris. French dominance in Italy was lost as a result of Suvorov's Italian campaign (1799). The 150,000-strong Austrian army on the Upper Rhine threatened to invade France. The English fleet blockaded French ports.

November 9, 1799 As a result of the coup d'etat, Bonaparte became the first consul of the 1st French Republic, effectively concentrating all power in his hands. In an effort to improve the position of France, he decided to defeat the Austrian army in Northern Italy, withdraw the Austrian Empire from the war, depriving its ally, England, of support on the continent, and thereby force the allies to peace negotiations. Already in November 1799, Bonaparte began to pull together separately formed units to the southeastern borders of France, which, after uniting at the Swiss border, were called the Reserve Army. General Louis-Alexandre Berthier, who in reality served as Bonaparte's chief of staff, was officially appointed commander-in-chief. The French managed to achieve absolute secrecy in the formation of the army, which was the main condition for the success of the campaign. In May 1800, the Reserve Army moved to Italy along the most difficult route - through the Alpine ridge, where the Austrians did not expect an attack. Having overcome the Alps, French troops entered the Po River valley - behind enemy lines. On June 14, in a decisive battle near the village of Marengo, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian army. This battle predetermined the outcome of the entire campaign. Austria was forced to ask for a truce. However, in December 1800, hostilities resumed. On December 3, 1800, the French army under the command of General Jean Moreau inflicted a new defeat on the Austrians in Germany near Hohenlinden.

February 9, 1801 the Treaty of Luneville was concluded between France and Austria, according to which the Austrians left the occupied territories of Lombardy, due to this, the borders of the Cisalpine Republic dependent on France (daughter) were expanded (created under its patronage in the territory of Northern and Central Italy), the French border was established along the left bank Reina. In October 1801, peace treaties between France and Turkey and Russia were signed. England lost allies and on March 27, 1802 was forced to conclude the Treaty of Amiens with France, which completed the collapse of the 2nd anti-French coalition. England returned to France and its allies the colonies seized from them (except for the islands of Ceylon and Trinidad). France pledged to withdraw its troops from Rome, Naples and the island of Elba. There was a short peaceful respite.

In May 1803, the war between England and France resumed.
June 18, 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte was proclaimed “Emperor of the French” by Napoleon I. Hoping to defeat England, Napoleon concentrated significant forces of the French fleet and expeditionary army in the area of the city of Boulogne, where he prepared to cross the English Channel and land troops on the British coast. But on October 21, at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), the combined Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated by an English squadron. British diplomacy launched active efforts to create a 3rd anti-French coalition in order to divert the attention of the French emperor in the European theater of military operations. Russia, concerned about French expansion in Europe, despite serious disagreements with England, accepted its proposal for joint action against Napoleon.

April 11 (March 30, old style) 1805 The St. Petersburg Treaty of Union was concluded between Russia and England, which marked the beginning of a coalition, which Austria joined in August. The allied states expected to field a united army of 500 thousand people against Napoleon. In August, the Russian-Austro-French War began (1805). Napoleon sought to defeat the Austrians before Russian troops arrived on their territory. By the end of September 1805, he deployed an army of 220 thousand people on the Rhine, officially called the “Grand Army”, which, taking advantage of the disunity of the allies, went to the rear of the Austrian Danube Army of Field Marshal Karl Mack and defeated it in the Battle of Ulm (1805). Russian troops arriving at the theater of operations found themselves face to face with the superior French army. By skillfully maneuvering, the commander of the Russian troops, Infantry General Mikhail Kutuzov, avoided encirclement. In the Battle of Krems (1805), he defeated the French corps of Marshal Edouard Mortier and united in the Olmutz area with the corps of Infantry General Feodor Buxhoeveden, who had arrived from Russia, and the remnants of the retreating Austrian army. But in the general Battle of Austerlitz (1805), the Russian-Austrian coalition troops were defeated. On December 26, 1805, Austria concluded a separate Treaty of Presburg with France. Under its terms, the Austrian Empire recognized all French conquests in Italy, Western and Southern Germany, transferred the Venetian region, Dalmatia, Istria to Napoleon and was obliged to pay a significant indemnity. This led to the collapse of the 3rd anti-French coalition and to the strengthening of French positions in Europe. Napoleon's attempts to make peace with Russia ended in failure. Signed on July 20, 1806 by the Russian representative in Paris, Peter Oubry, in violation of the instructions given to him, the Paris Peace Treaty was rejected by the Russian State Council.

In July 1806 Napoleon created the League of the Rhine from 16 small German principalities, headed it as protector and stationed French troops on its territory. In response to this, England, Russia, Prussia and Sweden formed the 4th anti-French coalition in September 1806. Prussia, before the end of allied military preparations on October 1, presented France with an ultimatum to withdraw troops beyond the Rhine. Napoleon rejected it and on October 8 ordered the invasion of French troops into Saxony, allied with Prussia. The "Great Army", concentrated in Bavaria before the offensive, crossed the border in three columns. Ahead in the central column moved with the cavalry Marshal Joachim Murat, and behind him with the main forces was Napoleon himself. The French army numbered 195 thousand people, Prussia fielded about 180 thousand soldiers. On October 10, in the battle near the city of Saalfeld (Saalfeld), the Prussians lost 1.5 thousand people killed and captured, Prince Ludwig died. On October 14, the French defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (1806) and entered Berlin on October 27. After the first-class Prussian fortress of Magdeburg surrendered on November 8, Napoleon signed a decree on the continental blockade (1806-1814) directed against England on November 21. Fulfilling allied obligations, on November 16, 1806, Russia again entered the war against France. Having occupied Prussia, Napoleon moved east to meet Russian troops, and at the end of November entered Poland. At this time, the advanced units of the Russian army approached Warsaw. Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army on the territory of Poland and East Prussia and force it to a peace beneficial to France. In the bloody Battle of Pultus (1806) and the Battle of Preussisch-Eylau (1807), with heavy losses on both sides, he failed to do this. However, on June 26 (14 old style) June 1807, Russian troops were defeated in the Battle of Friedland, and the French reached the borders of Russia. Napoleon was afraid to cross the Neman, realizing that Russia's military resources were not exhausted. The Russian government, having no allies on the continent and tied to the war with Iran and Turkey, was forced to turn to Napoleon with a proposal for peace. On July 8, 1807, the Franco-Russian and Franco-Prussian peace treaties were concluded in Tilsit. Fulfilling the conditions of the Peace of Tilsit (1807), Russia joined the continental blockade of England, and on November 7 (October 26, old style) declared war on it. Napoleon left Prussia within its old borders as part of Pomerania, Brandenburg and Silesia. After Tilsit, virtually all of Europe (with the exception of England) came under Napoleon's rule, and Paris turned into the “capital of the world.”

Having set the goal of economically strangling England with the help of a continental blockade, Napoleon intended to conquer the Iberian Peninsula and bring the entire coast of Europe under French customs control.

Autumn 1807 By secret agreement with the Spanish government, French troops under the command of General Jean Andoche Junot were introduced into Portugal through Spanish territory. On November 29, the French entered Lisbon, the royal family fled Spain on an English warship. During the winter and spring of 1808, Napoleon's troops crossed the Pyrenees and concentrated in Spain (in March there were up to 100 thousand people there). Taking advantage of internal strife in the country between King Charles IV and his son Infante Ferdinand, French troops under the command of Joachim Murat occupied the Spanish capital on March 20-23, 1808. In Spain, Napoleonic's army for the first time encountered a mass popular uprising for the country's independence (guerilla), which began on May 2 with a spontaneous uprising in Madrid. Napoleon's attempt to suppress the resistance of the Spaniards with limited military forces ended in failure (the defeat of French troops in 1808 at Bailen and Sintra). By this time, the British had landed in Portugal and ousted the French from Lisbon, turning Portuguese territory into their base. All this forced Napoleon at the end of 1808, at the head of an army of over 200 thousand people, to arrive in Spain. Within two months, most of the country was occupied. However, it was not possible to break the resistance of the Spanish people, who switched to guerrilla methods of struggle. The Spanish-French war became protracted and pinned down large forces of the Napoleonic army in Spain.

In January 1809 Napoleon returned to France - a new war was brewing in Central Europe with Austria, which the English government managed to involve in the 5th anti-French coalition. Hostilities began in April, and on May 13 Napoleon captured Vienna. After the heavy defeat of the Austrian army at Wagram, the Austrian emperor was forced to sign the Treaty of Schönbrunn with France on October 14, 1809, according to which it lost a huge territory (part of Carinthia and Croatia, Carniola, Istria, Trieste, the county of Hertz, etc.), and was deprived of access to sea, paid a large indemnity. Victory in this war required significant efforts from the Napoleonic army: the Austrian troops acquired military experience and their fighting qualities improved. During this period, the French had to face the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Central Europe against foreign domination. In April 1809, an uprising of Tyrolean peasants began under the leadership of Andreas Hofer. Anti-French protests testified to the emergence of popular forces in Central Europe that opposed the Napoleonic yoke.

By 1811 The population of the Napoleonic Empire, together with its vassal states, was 71 million people (out of 172 million people inhabiting Europe). Contributions, requisitions, direct robbery of European countries, and customs tariffs favorable to France provided a constant income for the Napoleonic empire and made it possible to implement the plan for conquest of world domination. However, internal and external contradictions undermined its power. In the country, due to continuous recruitment into the army and rising taxes, discontent grew in various sectors of society. The Continental blockade caused a crisis in some industries. Russia, wary of French expansion, was the main force on the continent, blocking its path to world domination. Napoleon began to make diplomatic and military preparations for war with Russia. In February 1812, he forced Prussia to sign an alliance treaty with him; in March, a Franco-Austrian alliance was concluded - both agreements had an anti-Russian orientation. The Allies pledged to place 20 thousand Prussian and 30 thousand Austrian troops at Napoleon's disposal for the war with Russia. Napoleon needed alliances with Prussia and Austria not only to replenish the “Great Army”, but also to divert part of the Russian forces to the north and south of the direct road Kovno (Kaunas) - Vilno (Vilnius) - Vitebsk - Smolensk - Moscow, along which he planned an attack. The governments of other states dependent on France were also preparing for a campaign in Russia.

The Russian government, in turn, took measures to strengthen the army and prevent Russia from being isolated in the event of war. In April, Russia signed the St. Petersburg Union Treaty (1812) with Sweden, which provided for joint actions against France. The parties recognized the need to bring England, which at that moment was at war with Russia, into the alliance. The peace treaty between Russia and England was signed during the outbreak of the war between Russia and France. Russia's great political success was the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace Treaty (1812), which ended the Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812).

June 24 (12 old style) 1812 The French crossed the Neman and invaded Russian territory. For the campaign against Russia, Napoleon assembled an army of over 600 thousand people, 1372 guns. The Patriotic War of 1812 began for the Russian people. The crushing defeat of Napoleon's troops in Russia marked the beginning of the liberation of Europe from French domination. The political situation in Europe has changed dramatically. The Prussian government, under pressure from the national liberation movement in the country, concluded the Kalisz Union Treaty with Russia on March 11-12 (February 27-28, old style), 1813, which laid the foundations for the 6th anti-French coalition. Despite the success of the French army in the Battle of Bautzen (1813), Napoleon agreed to a truce, which was his strategic mistake, since Austria joined the anti-French coalition. The French victory in the Battle of Dresden (1813) did not affect the strategic position of France; it continued to deteriorate. At the Battle of Leipzig (1813), French troops suffered a serious defeat and began to retreat across the Rhine. At the beginning of 1814, the Allied armies invaded France. By this time, the French had suffered a crushing defeat in Spain. By early 1814, Anglo-Spanish troops crossed the Pyrenees and moved into France from the south. During the short-term military campaign, Napoleon's leadership talent was revealed in all its brilliance. Having relatively small forces at his disposal, he inflicted a series of defeats on the allied armies that were repeatedly superior in number at Brienne, Montmirail, Montero, and Vauchamps. However, the overwhelming Allied superiority decided the outcome of the campaign. Following their victories at Laon (Laoen) and Arcy-sur-Aube, the Allied armies launched an attack on Paris and entered the French capital on March 30. Napoleon abdicated the throne and at the end of April was exiled to the island of Elba.

May 30, 1814 A peace treaty was signed in Paris, under the terms of which France was deprived of all territories conquered after 1792, and the royal Bourbon dynasty (Louis XVIII) was restored to the French throne. In October, the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) began its work with the aim of resolving issues of the post-war political structure of Europe. However, Napoleon, knowing about the deep dissatisfaction of the army and people of France with the policies of Louis XVIII and the disagreements among the participants in the anti-French coalition at the congress, fled from the island of Elba on March 1, 1815, with a small detachment of soldiers and officers loyal to him, landed in France and easily restored his power.
Participants in the Congress of Vienna created the 7th anti-French coalition, fielding an army of 700,000 against Napoleon. On June 18, 1815, the French army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo; on July 6, coalition troops entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne for the second time and was exiled to St. Helena under the supervision of the British. On November 20, 1815, a new treaty was signed in Paris between France and the participants of the 7th coalition, the conditions of which turned out to be more difficult for France than under the treaty of 1814.

The Napoleonic wars left a big mark on the history of the development of the armed forces and military art, primarily ground armies, since the main military operations took place in the European land theater of military operations. At the first stage of the Napoleonic Wars, the French army waged offensive wars. From the second half of 1812, its almost continuous retreat from Moscow to Paris began, with only short transitions to the offensive.

One of the characteristic features of the Napoleonic wars was a sharp increase in the size of the armies of the warring states. Huge masses of people were involved in wars. During the Napoleonic Wars, the armies of the main European states became massive. In 1812, the size of the Napoleonic army reached 1.2 million people, the Russian army by the beginning of 1813 - almost 700 thousand people, the Prussian army in 1813 - 240 thousand people. Up to 500 thousand people took part in the largest battles of the Napoleonic Wars. The fighting became fierce. If in all the wars of the 18th century before the Great French Revolution, France lost 625 thousand people killed and wounded, then in 1804-1814 1.7 million French died. Total losses during the Napoleonic Wars, including those killed, those who died from wounds, epidemics and starvation, amounted to 3.2 million people.

The emergence of mass armies determined changes in the organization of troops and in methods of conducting combat operations. The infantry division, which included brigades and regiments, became the main organizational unit of the troops. It united all three types of troops available at that time (infantry, cavalry and artillery) and was capable of independently solving tactical problems. The creation of corps and armies operating in separate operational directions was finally established. The organizational structure of the troops ensured the maintenance of interaction in battle (battle) of both individual elements of the battle order and various types of troops. The increase in the number of armies and the increased scale of military operations determined the need to further improve command and control and implement larger preliminary measures to prepare the state and army for war (campaign). All this served as an impetus for the development of general staffs in the armies of European states.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

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The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is one of the dramatic dates in the history of our country. This event gave rise to many myths and points of view regarding the reasons, plans of the parties, the number of troops and other important aspects. Let's try to understand this issue and cover Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 as objectively as possible. Let's start with the background.

Background to the conflict

Napoleon's invasion of Russia was not a random or unexpected event. This is in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace” it is presented as “treacherous and unexpected.” In fact, everything was natural. Russia brought disaster upon itself through its military actions. At first, Catherine the Second, fearing revolutionary events in Europe, helped the First Anti-French Coalition. Then Paul the First could not forgive Napoleon for the capture of Malta, an island that was under the personal protection of our emperor.

The main military confrontations between Russia and France began with the Second Anti-French Coalition (1798-1800), in which Russian troops, together with Turkish, English and Austrian troops, tried to defeat the army of the Directory in Europe. It was during these events that the famous Mediterranean campaign of Ushakov and the heroic transition of the thousands of Russian army through the Alps under the command of Suvorov took place.

Our country then first became acquainted with the “loyalty” of the Austrian allies, thanks to whom Russian armies of thousands were surrounded. This, for example, happened to Rimsky-Korsakov in Switzerland, who lost about 20 thousand of his soldiers in an unequal battle against the French. It was the Austrian troops who left Switzerland and left the 30,000-strong Russian corps alone with the 70,000-strong French corps. And the famous one was also forced, since the same Austrian advisers showed our commander-in-chief the wrong path in the direction where there were completely no roads and crossings.

As a result, Suvorov found himself surrounded, but with decisive maneuvers he was able to get out of the stone trap and save the army. However, ten years passed between these events and the Patriotic War. And Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 would not have taken place if not for further events.

The Third and Fourth Anti-French Coalitions. Violation of the Tilsit Peace

Alexander the First also started a war with France. According to one version, thanks to the British, a coup d'état took place in Russia, which brought young Alexander to the throne. This circumstance may have forced the new emperor to fight for the British.

In 1805, the Third was formed. It included Russia, England, Sweden and Austria. Unlike the previous two, the new alliance was framed as defensive. No one was going to restore the Bourbon dynasty in France. England needed the alliance most of all, since 200 thousand French soldiers were already stationed near the English Channel, ready to land on the island, but the Third Coalition prevented these plans.

The culmination of the alliance was the “Battle of the Three Emperors” on November 20, 1805. It received this name because all three emperors of the warring armies - Napoleon, Alexander the First and Franz the Second - were present on the battlefield near Austerlitz. Military historians believe that it was the presence of “dignitaries” that created complete confusion for the allies. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Coalition troops.

We try to briefly explain all the circumstances, without an understanding of which Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812 will be incomprehensible.

In 1806, the Fourth Anti-French Coalition emerged. Austria no longer took part in the war against Napoleon. The new union included England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden. Our country had to bear the entire brunt of the fighting, since England helped mainly only financially, as well as at sea, and the other participants did not have strong ground armies. In one day everything was destroyed at the Battle of Jena.

On June 2, 1807, our army was defeated near Friedland and retreated beyond the Neman - the border river in the western possessions of the Russian Empire.

After this, Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon on June 9, 1807 in the middle of the Neman River, which was officially interpreted as equality of the parties when signing the peace. It was the violation of the Peace of Tilsit that became the reason why Napoleon invaded Russia. Let us examine the contract itself in more detail so that the reasons for the events that occurred later are clear.

Terms of the Peace of Tilsit

The Tilsit Peace Treaty implied Russia's accession to the so-called blockade of the British Isles. This decree was signed by Napoleon on November 21, 1806. The essence of the “blockade” was that France was creating a zone on the European continent where England was prohibited from trading. Napoleon could not physically blockade the island, since France did not have even a tenth of the fleet that the British had at their disposal. Therefore, the term “blockade” is conditional. In fact, Napoleon came up with what today are called economic sanctions. England traded actively with Europe. From Russia, therefore, the “blockade” threatened the food security of Foggy Albion. In fact, Napoleon even helped England, since the latter quickly found new trading partners in Asia and Africa, making good money on this in the future.

Russia in the 19th century was an agricultural country that sold grain for export. The only major buyer of our products at that time was England. Those. the loss of the sales market completely ruined the ruling elite of nobles in Russia. We are seeing something similar today in our country, when counter-sanctions and sanctions have hit the oil and gas industry hard, resulting in the ruling elite incurring colossal losses.

In fact, Russia joined the anti-British sanctions in Europe, initiated by France. The latter itself was a large agricultural producer, so there was no possibility of replacing a trading partner for our country. Naturally, our ruling elite could not fulfill the conditions of the Tilsit Peace, as this would lead to the complete destruction of the entire Russian economy. The only way to force Russia to comply with the demands of the “blockade” was by force. That is why the invasion of Russia took place. The French emperor himself did not intend to go deep into our country, wanting to simply force Alexander to fulfill the Peace of Tilsit. However, our armies forced the French emperor to advance further and further from the western borders to Moscow.

date

The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russian territory is June 12, 1812. On this day, the enemy troops crossed the Neman.

The Invasion Myth

There is a myth that Napoleon's invasion of Russia happened unexpectedly. The emperor held a ball, and all the courtiers had fun. In fact, balls for all European monarchs of that time occurred very often, and they did not depend on political events, but, on the contrary, were an integral part of it. This was an unchanging tradition of monarchical society. It was there that public hearings on the most important issues actually took place. Even during the First World War, magnificent celebrations were held in the residences of nobles. However, it is worth noting that Alexander the First Ball in Vilna nevertheless left and retired to St. Petersburg, where he stayed throughout the entire Patriotic War.

Forgotten heroes

The Russian army was preparing for the French invasion long before this. War Minister Barclay de Tolly did everything possible to ensure that Napoleon's army approached Moscow at the limit of its capabilities and with huge losses. The Minister of War himself kept his army in full combat readiness. Unfortunately, the history of the Patriotic War treated Barclay de Tolly unfairly. By the way, it was he who actually created the conditions for the future French catastrophe, and the invasion of Napoleon’s army into Russia ultimately ended in the complete defeat of the enemy.

Tactics of the Minister of War

Barclay de Tolly used the famous “Scythian tactics”. The distance between Neman and Moscow is huge. Without food supplies, provisions for horses, or drinking water, the “Grand Army” turned into a huge prisoner of war camp, in which natural death was much higher than losses from battles. The French did not expect the horror that Barclay de Tolly created for them: peasants went into the forests, taking livestock with them and burning food, wells along the army’s route were poisoned, as a result of which periodic epidemics broke out in the French army. Horses and people were dying of hunger, mass desertion began, but there was nowhere to run in unfamiliar terrain. In addition, partisan detachments from peasants destroyed individual French groups of soldiers. The year of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is a year of unprecedented patriotic upsurge of all Russian people who united to destroy the aggressor. This point was also reflected by L.N. Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace”, in which his characters demonstratively refuse to speak French, since it is the language of the aggressor, and also donate all their savings to the needs of the army. Russia has not seen such an invasion for a long time. The last time our country was attacked by the Swedes was almost a hundred years ago. Not long before this, the entire secular world of Russia admired the genius of Napoleon and considered him the greatest man on the planet. Now this genius threatened our independence and turned into a sworn enemy.

The size and characteristics of the French army

The size of Napoleon's army during the invasion of Russia was about 600 thousand people. Its peculiarity was that it resembled a patchwork quilt. The composition of Napoleon's army during the invasion of Russia consisted of Polish lancers, Hungarian dragoons, Spanish cuirassiers, French dragoons, etc. Napoleon gathered his “Great Army” from all over Europe. She was diverse, speaking different languages. At times, commanders and soldiers did not understand each other, did not want to shed blood for Grand France, so at the first sign of difficulty caused by our “scorched earth” tactics, they deserted. However, there was a force that kept the entire Napoleonic army at bay - Napoleon's personal guard. This was the elite of the French troops, who went through all the difficulties with the brilliant commanders from the first days. It was very difficult to get into it. The guardsmen were paid huge salaries and were given the best food supplies. Even during the Moscow famine, these people received good rations, when others were forced to look for dead rats for food. The Guard was something like Napoleon's modern security service. She watched for signs of desertion and brought order to Napoleonic's motley army. She was also thrown into battle in the most dangerous sectors of the front, where the retreat of even one soldier could lead to tragic consequences for the entire army. The guards never retreated and showed unprecedented perseverance and heroism. However, there were too few of them in percentage terms.

In total, about half of Napoleon's army were French themselves, who showed themselves in battles in Europe. However, now this was a different army - aggressive, occupying, which was reflected in its morale.

Army composition

The Grand Army was deployed in two echelons. The main forces - about 500 thousand people and about 1 thousand guns - consisted of three groups. The right wing under the command of Jerome Bonaparte - 78 thousand people and 159 guns - was supposed to move to Grodno and divert the main Russian forces. The central group led by Beauharnais - 82 thousand people and 200 guns - was supposed to prevent the connection of the two main Russian armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration. Napoleon himself moved towards Vilna with renewed vigor. His task was to defeat the Russian armies separately, but he also allowed them to unite. Marshal Augereau's 170 thousand men and about 500 guns remained in the rear. According to the calculations of the military historian Clausewitz, Napoleon involved up to 600 thousand people in the Russian campaign, of which less than 100 thousand people crossed the border river Neman back from Russia.

Napoleon planned to impose battles on the western borders of Russia. However, Baclay de Tolly imposed a game of cat and mouse on him. The main Russian forces all the time avoided battle and retreated into the interior of the country, drawing the French further and further from Polish supplies, and depriving them of food and provisions on their own territory. That is why the invasion of Napoleon's troops into Russia led to the further catastrophe of the Grand Army.

Russian forces

At the time of the aggression, Russia had about 300 thousand people with 900 guns. However, the army was divided. The First Western Army was commanded by the Minister of War himself. Barclay de Tolly's group numbered about 130 thousand people with 500 guns. It stretched from Lithuania to Grodno in Belarus. Bagration's Second Western Army numbered about 50 thousand people - it occupied a line east of Bialystok. Tormasov's third army - also about 50 thousand people with 168 guns - was stationed in Volyn. There were also large groups in Finland - not long before there was a war with Sweden - and in the Caucasus, where Russia traditionally waged wars with Turkey and Iran. There was also a group of our troops on the Danube under the command of Admiral P.V. Chichagov in the amount of 57 thousand people with 200 guns.

Napoleon's invasion of Russia: the beginning

On the evening of June 11, 1812, a patrol of the Life Guards Cossack Regiment discovered suspicious movement on the Neman River. With the onset of darkness, enemy sappers began to build crossings three miles up the river from Kovno (modern Kaunas, Lithuania). Crossing the river with all forces took 4 days, but the French vanguard was already in Kovno on the morning of June 12. Alexander the First was at a ball in Vilna at that time, where he was informed about the attack.

From Neman to Smolensk

Back in May 1811, suggesting a possible invasion of Napoleon into Russia, Alexander the First told the French ambassador something like the following: “We would rather reach Kamchatka than sign peace in our capitals. Frost and territory will fight for us.”

This tactic was put into practice: Russian troops rapidly retreated from the Neman to Smolensk in two armies, unable to unite. Both armies were constantly pursued by the French. Several battles took place in which the Russians openly sacrificed entire rearguard groups in order to hold the main French forces for as long as possible, in order to prevent them from catching up with our main forces.

On August 7, a battle took place at Valutina Mountain, which was called the battle for Smolensk. Barclay de Tolly had by this time united with Bagration and even made several attempts to counterattack. However, all these were just false maneuvers that made Napoleon think about the future general battle near Smolensk and regroup the columns from the marching formation to the attacking one. But the Russian commander-in-chief well remembered the emperor’s order “I have no more army,” and did not dare to give a general battle, rightly predicting future defeat. The French suffered huge losses near Smolensk. Barclay de Tolly himself was a supporter of further retreat, but the entire Russian public unfairly considered him a coward and a traitor for his retreat. And only the Russian emperor, who had already fled from Napoleon once at Austerlitz, continued to trust the minister. While the armies were divided, Barclay de Tolly could still cope with the wrath of the generals, but when the army was united near Smolensk, he still had to launch a counterattack on Murat’s corps. This attack was needed more to calm the Russian commanders than to give a decisive battle to the French. But despite this, the minister was accused of indecisiveness, procrastination, and cowardice. His final discord with Bagration emerged, who was zealously eager to attack, but could not give an order, since formally he was subordinate to Barcal de Tolly. Napoleon himself expressed annoyance that the Russians did not give a general battle, since his ingenious outflanking maneuver with the main forces would have led to a blow to the Russian rear, as a result of which our army would have been completely defeated.

Change of commander in chief

Under public pressure, Barcal de Tolly was nevertheless removed from the post of commander-in-chief. Russian generals in August 1812 already openly sabotaged all his orders. However, the new commander-in-chief M.I. Kutuzov, whose authority was enormous in Russian society, also gave the order for further retreat. And only on August 26 - also under public pressure - he finally gave a general battle near Borodino, as a result of which the Russians were defeated and left Moscow.

Results

Let's summarize. The date of Napoleon's invasion of Russia is one of the tragic ones in the history of our country. However, this event contributed to a patriotic upsurge in our society and its consolidation. Napoleon was mistaken that the Russian peasant would choose the abolition of serfdom in exchange for support for the occupiers. It turned out that for our citizens, military aggression turned out to be much worse than internal socio-economic contradictions.

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