Examples of linguistic errors. Types and causes of language errors. Types of speech errors
Source: Electronic catalog of the industry department in the direction of “Jurisprudence”
(libraries of the Faculty of Law) Scientific Library named after. M. Gorky St. Petersburg State University
Linguistic errors in regulatory documents.
2. Use of the names of masculine officials in the singular (chairman, director, candidate, etc.). Parallel names of the feminine gender have a colloquial, even reduced stylistic connotation, therefore they are categorically excluded in the texts of regulatory legal acts.
3. The use of verbal nouns and adjectives (execution, finding, non-fulfillment, non-compliance, importance, necessity). It seems inappropriate to replace already existing nouns with parallel verbal forms (chairman of the court - presiding judge of the court).
Syntax of normative documents.
In a sentence as part of a legal text, predominantly direct word order must be observed, which is due to the increasing informational role of word order in written speech towards the end of the sentence. The use of various kinds of inversions shifts the semantic emphasis in the phrase and distorts the original meaning. For example:
A decision made at the local level can be canceled ... or declared invalid by a court in the manner prescribed by law. (Using the definition of “invalid” next to the word “court” can lead to a completely different interpretation of the phrase: “invalid court” instead of “invalid decision.” Therefore, the sentence should be structured like this: A decision taken at the local level can be canceled ... or recognized by the court void in accordance with the procedure established by law.)
- ...accountability to the district Council of People's Deputies within the limits of its powers of local government bodies of the Novousmansky district... (should be written: ...accountability of local government bodies of the Novousmansky district to the regional Council of People's Deputies within the limits of its powers...).
You should avoid using both overly short and very long sentences. An increase in the number of words in some cases to several dozen significantly complicates the understanding of the text, since when reading there is a loss of logical meaning. On the contrary, a sentence that is too short does not allow the author’s necessary thought to be expressed fully enough, so brevity should not come at the expense of meaning.
Phrases should be of simple construction, without overloading them with subordinate clauses and various kinds of complications (participial, adverbial phrases, so-called obsessive phrases that destroy the logical structure of the sentence, etc.). Errors in the use of connecting or disjunctive conjunctions and punctuation marks are unacceptable; omissions of words (...the district Council of People's Deputies temporarily assigns the duties of the head of the district to one of the deputy heads of the district administration... - to one of them), incomplete sentences, negative constructions (The decision on self-dissolution is made by two-thirds of the votes of the elected number of deputies. Such a decision cannot be adopted by the district council of people's deputies less than a year before the end of the term of office of the deputies. - follows: Such a decision can be made by the district council of people's deputies no less than a year before the end of the term of office of the deputies.).
One can give many examples of violations of language norms (spelling, lexical, morphological, syntactic) in legal acts. Their presence indicates the need for the legislator to master the rules and techniques of legal writing, as this will ensure the greatest effectiveness of legal norms at the stage of interpretation and implementation. The level of perfection, clarity and clarity of the law largely depends on the level of development of language norms. The linguistic embodiment of a normative act must ensure universal accessibility and maximum convenience for its study and application. To achieve high quality of content and form of a legal act, it is necessary:
Develop and legislate a system of linguistic-stylistic rules of regulatory documents in accordance with the norms of the Russian language;
Establish mandatory linguistic examination of normative legal acts at the level of constituent entities of the Federation and municipalities (with the involvement of specialist linguists);
For students of law faculties of higher educational institutions, introduce the study of relevant disciplines in the form of courses or special courses (for example, “Language and Law”, “Legislative Technique”, “Forensic Linguistics”, “Stylistics of Lawyer’s Business Speech”, etc.).
Develop the study of legislative technology in relation to various branches of law in order to identify specific means, techniques and rules for creating normative documents.
See: E.S. Shugrina. Technique of legal writing: Educational and practical work. allowance. – M., 2000. – 272 p.; Legislative technology: Scientific and practical. allowance. – M.: Gorodets, 2000. – 272 p.; Problems of legal technology. Collection of articles / ed. V.M. Baranova. – Nizhny Novgorod, 2000. – 823 p.
For example, the Regulations on linguistic examination of the laws of the Voronezh region and other legal acts of the regional Duma, approved by Resolution of the Voronezh Regional Duma of March 18, 1999 No. 780-II-OD.
Many words that are in common use but have specific legal meanings can cause serious confusion when used in documents that are not intended for lawyers but for ordinary people.
The unity of terminology is not always maintained. For example, in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, representatives of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly are called members of the chamber in Section One, and deputies in Section Two, and the document does not provide an explanation for such discrepancies in word usage.
Charter of the Novousmansky district of the Voronezh region, ch. I, art. 1.
Charter of the Novousmansky district of the Voronezh region, ch. V, art. 19.
Charter of the Novousmansky district of the Voronezh region, ch. IV, Art. 18.
Currently, Russian lawyers are actively developing and improving such courses (see: Law: collection of training programs. - M.: Yurist, 2001. - 205 p.
A source of information:Scientific and practical conference ¨Constitutional readings¨. (
Contents Linguistic errors around us: reasons for their occurrence and classification. Linguistic errors around us: causes of their occurrence and classification. a) Language norm and deviation from it a) Language norm and deviation from it b) Types of errors. b) Types of errors. c) Causes of occurrence. c) Causes of occurrence. d) Fighting errors. d) Fighting errors. e) “Slang” words in our school. e) “Slang” words in our school. Conclusion and work prospects. Conclusion and work prospects.
Purpose of the work: to draw the attention of schoolchildren to linguistic errors in our speech and to correct them. draw the attention of schoolchildren to linguistic errors in our speech and their correction. Tasks: Tasks: -study theoretical material about the language norm and deviations from it, -study theoretical material about the language norm and deviations from it, -collect typical errors and classify them, -collect typical errors and classify them, fight errors. Deal with mistakes.
Language norm and deviation from it Norm is the generally accepted use of words, their forms, syntactic structures, enshrined in dictionaries, reference books and recommended by them, as well as confirmed by the use of words by authoritative writers, scientists, and the educated part of society. Norm is the generally accepted use of words, their forms, syntactic structures, enshrined in dictionaries, reference books and recommended by them, as well as confirmed by the use of words by authoritative writers, scientists, and the educated part of society. An error is a violation of norms. An error is a violation of norms.
Types of errors Spelling Spelling Punctuation Punctuation Grammar Grammar Speech Speech Factual Factual Logical Logical Outdated spelling Outdated spelling Non-existent spelling Non-existent spelling Mixing Latin and Cyrillic Mixing Latin and Cyrillic
The fight against mistakes First, carry out campaigns to promote literacy and education among the population. Firstly, carry out campaigns to promote literacy and education among the population. Secondly, open sites that ridicule the errors and also contain an explanation of how they need to be corrected. Secondly, open sites that ridicule the errors and also contain an explanation of how they need to be corrected. Thirdly, monitor your speech and spelling and help your friends with this. Thirdly, monitor your speech and spelling and help your friends with this.
Jargon words in our school In recent years, jargon words have overwhelmed our speech. People seem to forget the literary language, gradually switching to slang expressions. In recent years, jargon has overwhelmed our speech. People seem to forget the literary language, gradually switching to slang expressions.
Questionnaire questionnaire Questionnaire questionnaire Do you use jargon? Do you use jargon? Why: Why: –You want to better express your thoughts; – you don’t want to be different from your peers; – afraid of being ridiculed by others; – you cannot replace jargon with literary words; -other options. What jargon do you use most often? What jargon do you use most often? How do you understand the meaning of these words? How do you understand the meaning of these words? How many times a day do you use these words: How many times a day do you use these words: –15 times; –610 times; – more than 10 times. Do you think, as a result, speech becomes... Do you think, as a result, speech becomes... -better; -worse; – I find it difficult to answer.
Conclusion A person’s speech is a litmus test of his general culture, mastery of a literary language is a necessary component of education and, conversely, “linguistic illiteracy,” as M. Gorky also said, “is always a sign of low culture.” A person’s speech is a litmus test of his general culture, mastery of a literary language is a necessary component of education and, conversely, “linguistic illiteracy,” as M. Gorky also said, “is always a sign of low culture.”
Speech is a channel for the development of intelligence,
the sooner the language is acquired,
the easier and more completely the knowledge will be absorbed.
Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist
We think of speech as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intelligence and a way of understanding the complex connections of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.
It is obvious that when learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this regard. All people make mistakes, both in speech and in speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as the idea of “”, is inextricably linked with the concept of speech error. In essence, these are parts of the same process, and, therefore, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.
Types of speech errors
First, let's figure out what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live, work and communicate normally with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.
The author of the classification of speech errors given below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.
Types of speech errors:
Examples and causes of speech errors
S. N. Tseitlin writes: “The complexity of the speech generation mechanism is a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's look at special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.
Pronunciation errors
Pronunciation or spelling errors arise as a result of violation of the rules of spelling. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. These also include accentological errors - violation of stress norms. Examples:
Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plotlit” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktrichesky” (“electric”), “colidor” ("corridor"), "laboratory" ("laboratory"), "tyshcha" ("thousand"), "shchas" ("now").
Accent: “calls”, “dialogue”, “agreement”, “catalogue”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beets”, “phenomenon”, “driver”, “expert”.
Lexical errors
Lexical errors are violations of the rules of vocabulary, first of all, the use of words in meanings that are unusual for them, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They come in several types.
Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type there are three subtypes:
- Mixing words that are similar in meaning: “He read the book back.”
- Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, colossus - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
- A mixture of words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diploma holder, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignoramus. “Cashier for business travelers” (required – business travelers).
Word writing. Examples of errors: Georgian, heroism, underground, spender.
Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the lines of their material meanings. For example, you cannot say: “ I raise this toast", since “to lift” means “to move,” which is not consistent with the wish. “Through a door that is ajar” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (open a little) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.
This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “the month of May”, “traffic route”, “residence address”, “huge metropolis”, “be on time”. Tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “We were given a task,” “The organizer was a public organization,” “I wish you long creative life.”
Phraseological errors
Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in a meaning that is unusual for them. Yu. V. Fomenko identifies 7 varieties:
- Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “As long as the matter is the case” instead of “As long as the trial is the case”;
- Truncation of phraseological units: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseological unit: “beat his head against the wall”);
- Expansion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: “You have come to the wrong address” (phraseological unit: go to the right address);
- Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: “I can’t stand sitting with my hands folded.” Correct: “folded”;
- Contamination (combination) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything with your sleeves folded” (a combination of phraseological units “carelessly” and “hands folded”);
- Combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "Random stray bullet";
- Use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: “Today we will talk about the film from cover to cover.”
Morphological errors
Morphological errors are incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers away”.
Syntax errors
Syntactic errors are associated with violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules of combining words. There are a lot of varieties, so we will give just a few examples.
- Incorrect matching: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
- Mismanagement: “Pay for travel”;
- Syntactic ambiguity: “Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression”(have you read Mayakovsky or have you read Mayakovsky’s works?);
- Design offset: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention”;
- Extra correlative word in the main clause: “We looked at those stars that dotted the whole sky.”
Spelling mistakes
This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of writing, hyphenation, and abbreviation of words. Characteristic of speech. For example: “the dog barked”, “sit on the chairs”, “come to the train station”, “Russian. language", "gram. error".
Punctuation errors
Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks when...
Stylistic errors
We have dedicated a separate section to this topic.
Ways to correct and prevent speech errors
How to prevent speech errors? Work on your speech should include:
- Reading fiction.
- Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
- Communication with educated people.
- Constant work to improve speech culture.
Online course “Russian language”
Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course “to” to these topics. During the classes, you will have the opportunity to practice competent writing skills using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.
Sources
- Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. – St. Petersburg, 1997.
- Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
- Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors...
- Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. – Novosibirsk: NSPU, 1994.
- Tseytlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Education, 1982.
Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic. I. Logical errors are associated with failure to distinguish between concepts that are close in some respect. Often the writer or speaker does not distinguish between spheres of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena, genus-species, species and other relationships. To avoid creating a situation where you meant one thing and said something else, you need to check the meanings in a dictionary. all dubious words entering into coordinating or subordinating relationships in a sentence. So, in the sentence Residents of a seaside town witnessed a large theatrical performance, we find an error in the phrase
witnesses to the performance. The word witness means “eyewitness”; This is the name given to a person who finds himself at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the sphere of judicial and legal activity. In the field of theatrical and concert activity, which is discussed here, the word spectator is used. This error is associated with a failure to distinguish between areas of activity.
The erroneous combination of rising prices is due to a failure to distinguish between the related concepts of prices and goods: goods become more expensive, and prices rise. Similar errors in the proposals: The Commission will solve this long-standing problem; He raised a toast to friendship; The session adopted a decision aimed at improving the noted shortcomings; The timely launch of the plant raises concerns; There are 52 trees in the park; As a result of the plague epidemic, people left the city. All errors are explained by failure to distinguish between related phenomena: it is not the problem that is delayed, but its solution; they raise not a toast, but a glass; improve not shortcomings, but work; they fear not that the plant will be launched, but that it will not be launched on time; they are not laying trees, but a park; people leave the city not as a result, but because of the plague. Possible fixes in these cases:... will speed up the protracted solution to the problem;... made a toast; ...to eradicate shortcomings;...that the plant will not be launched on time; ...52 trees were planted; As a result of the plague, the city was deserted.
2. Linguistic errors are associated with failure to distinguish between denoting words that are in any semantic relationship. These are mainly synonyms and paronyms:
1) failure to distinguish between synonyms, words that are close or have the same meaning, leads to errors in use:
a) the words role and function in the meaning of “work, circle of activity” are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different signifiers: role with the sphere of theater and cinema, and function with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed); in the meaning of a measure of influence, degree of participation, the word role is synonymous with the word meaning in the sense of importance. But their compatibility is different: it plays a role, but it matters;
b) the words brave and courageous are synonyms, but brave is associated with the external manifestation of the named quality, and courageous is associated with both external and internal, therefore a thought, decision, idea can only be courageous, but not brave;
c) coinciding in the meaning of “material evidence of something.” success" the words trophy and prize have different lexical compatibility: the trophy is captured, the prize is received, won; in the example Ten teams took part in the competition for an honorary trophy, it should be corrected: for an honorary prize; d) the words skyscraper and high-rise building (high-rise building) are synonymous, but skyscraper is associated with the USA, and high-rise building is associated with our country; the phrase New York high-rise buildings is a linguistic error; similarly, one should distinguish between a hut (southern Russia and Ukraine) and a hut (northern Russia); patrimony (XI-XVII centuries), estate (XV-early XVIII centuries) and estate (from the 19th century), etc.;
2) failure to distinguish between paronyms (words that partially coincide in sound) also leads to errors in use; Most paronyms are words with the same root, differing in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. Wed:
a) simplify-simplify: common root and general meaning “to make simpler”, but the second verb has an additional meaning “to make simpler than it should”;
b) misconduct (fault) - act (action committed by someone); ^.
c) guilty (who has committed a crime) - guilty (who has been guilty of something, who has violated the rules of morality, politeness, etc.);
e) pay and pay differ in the way of control: after the first, a prepositional construction is used, after the second, a non-prepositional construction (accusative case) is used: pay for the fare - pay for the fare.
You notice. Paronyms are often in synonymous relationships, and, therefore, all recommendations for distinguishing synonyms apply to them.
To identify the specifics of words connected by paronymic relationships, it is necessary to correctly understand the morphological composition of the word and the method of its formation. For example, in the pairs assimilate-master, complicate-complicate, make heavier-weighted, words with the prefix o- have the meaning of a higher degree of manifestation of the action; in pairs hygienic-hygienic, logical-logical, practical-practical, economic-economical, distinguished by the suffixes -ichesk-/-n-, the second adjective denotes a characteristic that can be manifested to a greater or lesser extent (qualitative adjective). Hence the compatibility: hygienic norm - hygienic fabric, logical laws - logical conclusion, practical application - practical clothing, economic policy - economical device.
Note. It is necessary to distinguish between the Moscow Patriarchate (the official name of the Russian Orthodox Church) and the Moscow Patriarchate (the set of institutions under the direct supervision of the Patriarch). Paronyms can be associated with different versions of the common root: short (small in size, the opposite of long) - short (stated briefly , in a few words). Therefore, a short text, but a brief retelling of the text. See also variants of the root in the words spiritual (connected with the inner, moral world of a person) and spiritual (connected with the mental state of a person). Therefore, "spiritual requests, but peace of mind .
Borrowed words may also appear in paronymic relationships: stdtus (legal status) - statute (charter, regulation on something); cf.: obtain the status of an independent state - a UN statute; parity (equality) AND priority (superiority, advantage), dequalification (loss of qualifications) - disqualification (deprivation of qualifications), etc. To distinguish between paronyms of foreign origin, it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of foreign words. .
Below are frequency pairs of paronyms: close-near coincide in meaning: 1) “located nearby, at a short distance” - close (close) mountains, but the second adjective indicates a greater degree of proximity, in this case we are talking about several mountains, of which some are closer than others; 2) “closely related” - close (neighbor). relative, but the second adjective in this meaning is outdated;
execute-execute have the general meaning of “to carry out, bring to life” - to carry out (fulfill) an order, but the second verb has a bookish character;
distant-distant coincide in meaning: 1) “located at a great distance; coming from afar; having a large extent” - distant (distant) edge, distant (distant) echo, distant (distant) distance, but at the same time the second adjective can indicate a more distant object compared to another, located further away - the far end of the garden; 2) “distant over a long period of time, relating to the distant past” - distant (distant) past, but in this meaning the second adjective is outdated;
long-long coincide* in the meaning of “ongoing, prolonged” - long (long) conversation, long (long) pause, but long indicates length in time, and long emphasizes the procedural meaning of the noun; long is usually combined with the names of periods of time (long night, long winter), f long - with the names of actions and conditions designed for a long period (long flight, long treatment); ,
agreements differ in that a treaty means a written or oral agreement, a condition of mutual obligations (agreement of friendship and cooperation), and an agreement is an agreement reached through negotiations (an agreement to include an issue on the agenda);
friendly-friendly coincide in the meaning of “based on friendship, expressing friendship”, but differ in that the word friendly has a bookish coloring and an additional meaning of “mutually benevolent”; s?.: friendly states-friendly pat on the shoulder;
desired-desirable differ in that the first adjective means “the one desired” (a welcome guest), and the second means “corresponding to desires, interests, necessary” (desirable change in the resolution);
meaning-significance coincide in the meaning of “importance, significance”, but differ in the degree of importance; y-word significance is higher; cf.: social significance - social significance; in other uses, the word meaning means “meaning, content,” and significance means “the presence of meaning”; cf.: the meaning of a word is the significance of what is said;
truth (truth, the actual state of affairs) - truth (correspondence to truth); f.: the desire for truth - the truth of the assumptions made;
seconded (about a person sent on a business trip) - business trip (belonging to a business traveler); Wed: hotel for business travelers - travel certificate;
docked-compartment designate a type of carriage divided into compartments, the second word is of a professional terminological nature;
unhappy and unhappy differ in the degree of unhappiness: the word unhappy is absolute, unhappy is relative; cf.: unhappy person - unlucky day;
ordinary - ordinary differ in that the first word emphasizes inconspicuousness, unremarkability, and the second - typicality; cf: ordinary person - ordinary day;
special-special differ in that the first word means “unlike others, different from them”, and the second means “large, significant”, cf.: special person - special importance of the issue;
prepare - prepare coincide in the meaning of “carry out work to complete, implement something,” but differ in that the first verb contains an additional indication of the preliminary nature of the work; cf.: prepare a text for translation - prepare a text for translation;
make peace - reconcile: in the meaning of “tolerate something, get used to something,” the verb is used to reconcile (come to terms with what happened), and in the meaning of “stop the state of quarrel,” the verb to reconcile has the meaning of a temporary, incomplete action and a colloquial nature; cf.: neighbors made peace - neighbors made peace;
look-examine differ in that the second verb more strongly expresses the purposefulness of the action; cf.: look at the one who entered - examine the one who entered;
provide-present differ in that the first verb has the meaning: 1) “to give at disposal, use” (to provide someone with the word “premises”); 2) “to give an opportunity, the right to smth. do” (let the dispute be resolved by yourself); the second verb means “deliver, present, report” (present evidence, necessary materials to the court); Wed also: he is given the opportunity to have different-different coincide in meanings; 1) “all kinds, all kinds, varied”; “different, dissimilar”; the word different emphasizes dissimilarity * originality; Wed: different points of view - different points of view.
The error in choosing a paronym is one of the most common in modern texts, for example: The speaker deliberately omitted (instead of: omitted) some facts; arrows with flint (instead of: flint) tips; On that day the first demonstration took place (instead of: took place); 3)
pleonasm (semantic redundancy) occurs when the meaning of a word is duplicated by the words with which it is combined. Widely known are such erroneous combinations as timing of time (instead of: timing), free vacancy (instead of: vacancy), memorable souvenir (instead of: souvenir), full house (instead of: full house), supporting bridgehead (instead of: springboard), testing and approval method (instead of: testing the method), debuted for the first time (instead of: debuted or performed for the first time), in the month of May (instead of: in May), five rubles of money (instead of: five rubles), save every minute of time (instead of: every minute).
The highlighted words in the following sentences are clearly superfluous: It was found that existing prices are inflated (non-existent prices can be neither overestimated nor underestimated); Illegal pilferage of state property (plundering cannot be legal); Existing experience is successfully exchanged (if there is no experience, then it cannot be exchanged); They turned the ocean into a launch pad for launching strategic weapons (can only be launched from the launch pad); The leading leader of this party made a statement (a leader is one who leads, leads); A press conference was held between the champion and journalists (press conferences are held only for the press, then eci> journalists); It is necessary to establish an upper price ceiling (the ceiling is what is at the top); We need to take a look at this. through the eyes of a future descendant (a descendant is someone who replaces someone, that is, it can only be in the future).
Often in a sentence the pronouns his, himself are redundant: Before his death, he wrote a will (they don’t write wills before someone else’s death); In his report... the scientist said... (in someone else's report he could not (>b* do this); Exactly! these teams met each other in an anniversary match (often in the verb meet has the meaning of mutual action; cf .; made peace, quarreled, etc.); , L i 4)
Tautology, in contrast to pleonasm, where meanings and not words are repeated, is a repetition within a sentence of the same word, related words, homonyms. If
Pleonasm is a hidden redundancy, while tautology is open, obvious. So, the sentence needs to be edited:
Along with the achievements, a number of shortcomings were noted (as follows: ... shortcomings were also noted);
When selecting illustrations for a book, it is necessary to take into account their artistic merits when selecting them (it follows: when selecting illustrations, one must take into account their artistic merits);
In conclusion, the narrator told another funny story (follows: ... stopped at, told, brought, etc.);
The duration of the process lasts several hours (follows: the duration of the process is several hours);
The disadvantages of the dissertation include the insufficient development of certain specific issues (follows: ...lack of development of individual issues);
As one might expect, everything was clarified the next day (follows: ...the next day);
The following features should be noted... (should: it is necessary to note... or... such features);
In response to this, we received the following response (follows: A response was received to this).
A tautology is especially undesirable if the forms that coincide in their sound appearance are different meanings of a polysemantic word or homonyms, for example: Chatsky’s lyrical monologues are distinguished by sincerity and thereby differ from the etiquette of the salon speech of lovers (follows: Chatsky’s lyrical monologues are sincere and thereby differ from the salon speech of lovers ;
The important point is that we currently do not have any information on this issue (it should be noted that we currently do not have any information on this issue);
We have guests from France (follows: We have guests from France or: Today we receive guests from France);
Now they are expecting certain steps from him, without which, in the opinion of some, his further political career is impossible (follows: ...they are waiting for very specific steps or: such steps, or: they are waiting for steps).
The Latin word is lapsus. It denotes an error in a person's speech. From this word came the well-known abbreviation blunder. Only if a blunder is considered a gross violation of speech norms, then lapsus has a less strict meaning. Unfortunately, there is no analogue of this word, which denotes speech errors, in modern Russian. But lapsus are found everywhere.
Speech errors are divided into standard errors and typos. Typos are mechanical errors. A word may be spelled incorrectly in the text, which will complicate the perception of information. Or instead of one word they accidentally use another. Typos also occur in spoken language. These are slips of the tongue that you hear from people every day.
Mechanical errors occur unconsciously, but a lot depends on them. Errors in writing numbers create a distortion of factual information. And spelling words incorrectly can completely change the meaning of what was said. One scene from the film “Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day,” directed by Miguel Arteta, demonstrates the problem of typos well. The printing house mixed up the letters “p” and “s” and in a children’s book they wrote, instead of “You can jump on the bed,” the phrase “You can burp on the bed.” And according to the plot of the film, this situation resulted in a scandal.
Particular attention was paid to typos during the Stalinist repressions, when an incorrectly spelled word cost a person his life. It is impossible to eradicate the problem of typos, since people make them unconsciously. The only way you will avoid this type of speech error is to be careful when writing the text, carefully choosing the words you say.
Types of regulatory errors
Speech errors are associated with violations of the norms of the Russian language. Types of speech errors:
- orthoepic;
- morphological;
- spelling;
- syntactic-punctuation;
- stylistic;
- lexical.
Spelling error
A pronunciation error is associated with a violation of orthoepy norms. It manifests itself only in oral speech. This is an erroneous pronunciation of sounds, words or phrases. Errors in pronunciation also include incorrect stress.
The distortion of words occurs in the direction of reducing the number of letters. For example, when instead of “thousand” the word “thousand” is pronounced. If you want to speak competently and beautifully, you should rid your speech of such words. A common mispronunciation of the word “of course” is “of course.”
Pronouncing the correct accent is not only correct, but also fashionable. Surely you have heard how people correct the incorrect emphasis in the words “Alcohol”, “calls”, “contract” to the correct ones - “alcohol”, “calls” and “contract”. Incorrect placement of stress has recently become more noticeable than before. And the opinion about your erudition depends on compliance with pronunciation standards.
Morphological error
Morphology is a branch of linguistics in which the object of study is words and their parts. Morphological errors are caused by incorrect formation of word forms of different parts of speech. The reasons are incorrect declension, errors in the use of gender and number.
For example, "doctors" instead of "doctors". This is a morphological error in the use of the plural.
They often use the wrong form of a word when changing case. The genitive case of the word apples is apples. Sometimes the incorrect form of "apples" is used instead.
Common morphological errors - incorrect spelling of numerals:
“The company owned five hundred and fifty-three branches.” In this example, the word “fifty” was not declined. Correct spelling: "The company owned five hundred and fifty-three branches."
In the use of adjectives, a common mistake is the incorrect use of the comparative degree. For example, this use: “more beautiful” instead of “more beautiful”. Or “the highest” instead of “the highest” or “the highest”.
Spelling mistake
Spelling errors are misspellings of words. They arise when a person does not know the correct spelling of a word. Have you ever received a message containing grammatical errors? A common example: spelling the word “sorry” with an “e.” To prevent such spelling errors from happening to you, read as much as possible. Reading stimulates the perception of the correct spelling of words. And if you are used to reading correctly written text, then you will write without making grammatical errors.
Spelling errors, in principle, occur due to ignorance of the correct words. Therefore, if you are not sure of a written word, you should consult a dictionary. At work, learn the list of words specific to your field that you need to remember and in which you should never make grammatical errors.
Syntax and punctuation errors
These types of speech errors occur when punctuation marks are placed incorrectly and words are incorrectly combined in phrases and sentences.
Missing dashes, extra commas - this refers to punctuation errors. Don't be lazy to open your textbook if you're not sure about the use of commas. Again, this is a problem that can be overcome by reading a lot of books. You get used to the correct placement of punctuation marks and already on an intuitive level it is difficult for you to make a mistake.
Violations of syntax rules are common. Coordination errors are common. “To be happy, a person needs a favorite place to relax, a job, a happy family.” The word “need” in this sentence is not suitable for listing. It is necessary to use “need”.
Professional editors believe that management error is common. When a word is replaced by a synonym or a similar word, but the control does not agree with the new word.
An example of a management error: “They praised and congratulated Alina for her victory.”
They praised Alina. They brought congratulations to Alina. Parts of the proposal are inconsistent due to mismanagement. After "praised" you need to add the word "her" to correct the mistake.
Stylistic errors
Unlike other types of errors, stylistic errors are based on distortion of the meaning of the text. Classification of main stylistic speech errors:
- Pleonasm. The phenomenon occurs frequently. Pleonasm is a redundant expression. The author expresses a thought, supplementing it with information that is already understandable to everyone. For example, “a minute passed,” “he told the true truth,” “a secret spy was watching the passenger.” A minute is a unit of time. The truth is the truth. And a spy is a secret agent in any case.
- Cliche. These are established phrases that are used very often. Clichés cannot be completely attributed to speech errors. Sometimes their use is appropriate. But if they are often found in the text or a cliché of a conversational style is used in a business style, this is a serious speech error. Clichés include the expressions “to win”, “golden autumn”, “overwhelming majority”.
- Tautology. An error in which the same or similar words are often repeated. The same word should not be repeated in the same sentence. It is advisable to eliminate repetitions in adjacent sentences.
Sentences in which this error was made: “He smiled, his smile filled the room with light,” “Katya blushed from the red wine,” “Petya loved to go fishing and catch fish.”
- Violation of word order. In English, word order is much stricter than in Russian. It is distinguished by the clear construction of parts of a sentence in a certain sequence. In Russian, you can rearrange phrases as you would like. But it is important not to lose the meaning of the statement.
To prevent this from happening, follow two rules:
- The order of words in a sentence can be direct or reverse depending on the subject and predicate.
- The secondary members of the sentence must agree with the words on which they depend.
Lexical speech errors
Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language. Mistakes occur when you write or talk about something you don’t understand. More often, errors in the meanings of words occur for several reasons:
- The word is outdated and rarely used in modern Russian.
- The word refers to highly specialized vocabulary.
- The word is a neologism and its meaning is not widespread.
Classification of lexical speech errors:
- False synonymy. A person considers several words that are not synonyms to be synonyms. For example, authority is not popularity, and features are not differences. Examples where an error was made:“The singer was an authority among young people” instead of “The singer was popular among young people.” “The brother and sister had many differences in their personalities” instead of “The brother and sister had many differences in their personalities.”
- Using words that sound similar. For example, using the word “single” when you need to say “ordinary”. Instead of the word “Indian” they may write the mistaken “Indian”.
- Confusion in words with similar meanings. “Interviewer” and “Interviewee”, “Subscriber” and “Subscription”, “Addressee” and “Addressee”.
- Unintentional formation of new words.
It's easy to make a speech error. Sometimes this happens in case of a slip of the tongue, and sometimes the problem lies in ignorance of some norm of the Russian language or due to confusion in the meanings of words. Read a lot of books, speak correctly and don’t hesitate to consult a dictionary or textbook once again. Constantly work on your oral and written speech so that the number of errors is close to zero.
