1. What is matter? What is experience? The first of these questions is constantly pestered by idealists, agnostics, and including Machists, to materialists; with the second – materialists to Machists. Let's try to figure out what's going on here. Avenarius says on the issue of matter: “Inside

After the Second Ecumenical Council was held in Constantinople in 381, a pentarchy was formed in the Christian world - five main episcopal sees. Even then, the Bishop of Rome was first among equals: this was explained by the idea of ​​​​the primacy of the throne of the Apostle Peter over all others. Subsequently, the three episcopal sees withdrew from the competitive race altogether, since their territories were conquered by the Arabs. Now Rome and Constantinople began to compete with each other. We all know what this led to, and we are still forced to reap the fruits of this rivalry.

But let's return to the Roman See. From the second half of the 5th century - during the invasion of the barbarians - the popes took an active part in the affairs of secular political governance, protecting the people. Leo I, by the way, became famous as a real diplomat, having managed to agree first with Attila and then with Geiseric not to shed the blood of innocent residents and not to plunder Rome. Thus, the absence of a stable supreme power in Italy forced the popes to perform secular functions. Under Gregory the Great, the pope's influence began to grow and spread to Great Britain, which adopted Christianity from Rome.

In 728, Pope Gregory II and the Lombard king concluded an agreement to grant Rome to the apostles Peter and Paul, which became the basis for the formation of a papal secular state. Then everything develops even faster: Pepin the Short gives the pope the lands conquered from the Lombards, and already in 800 Leo III crowns Charlemagne as emperor. Thus, the emperor becomes the anointed of the pope.

The creation of the so-called “Donation of Constantine” dates back to approximately the same time. Historians still argue about the dating of this document, but for the present question this is not decisive. The document states that Pope Sylvester cured Emperor Constantine with baptism from a terrible illness - blindness, and, amazed at this miracle, Constantine recognized the superiority of papal power over the imperial one, and in addition gave him the rights to rule Rome.

By the 9th century, when the struggle between the empire and the papacy was just emerging, popes began to refer to this document. At the same time, the so-called “theory of two swords” began to develop - a concept that substantiates the supremacy of the power of the Pope over secular sovereigns. What is it? According to this theory, there are two swords: spiritual and secular. Both swords belong to the church, but she holds the spiritual sword with the hand of the clergy, and the secular sword with the hand of the emperor. Secular power is subordinated to spiritual power, but the pope cannot hold a secular sword.

In the 13th century we can talk about the victory of the papacy over secular sovereigns. A papal theocracy reigns, the main representative of which - Innocent III (the same one under whom the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders took place; and he also gave the go-ahead for the founding of the Franciscan Order) - concentrated enormous power in his hands and was considered at that time the most powerful man in Europe. Fortunately or unfortunately, after the death of Innocent III, it became clear that the papacy could not repeat such a dizzying success. The Roman bishops began to rapidly lose their positions.

The crisis of the 14th century also affected the papacy. In 1302, at the first meeting of the Estates General in France, Pope Boniface VIII was convicted and then taken into custody. Clement V, a protege of the French king, ascended the papal throne. And then confusion began: the Avignon captivity of the popes, Western schism, as a consequence of all this - the growing movement of conciliarism, which proclaimed the primacy of the ecumenical council over the pope. Perhaps, the popes were able to make themselves known again only during the period of the Counter-Reformation, deftly wielding the newly founded Jesuit order for their own purposes and participating in political intrigues.

Argues that the first Pope - the Apostle Peter - received power from the hands of Jesus Christ himself. Since then, continuously, eighteen days after the death of the previous one, the next earthly vicegerent of God is elected. The Pope in Catholicism is considered the head of the entire church. He is elected by the conclave - a meeting of cardinals - for life. He is given high honors. Before the pope ascends to the throne, a bloodless sacrifice is performed. Then he puts on a special headdress - a tiara. This is no longer the usual miter of a bishop, but a crown consisting of three teeth, as a sign that the Pope now receives power in earthly and ecclesiastical matters. Church tradition justifies his special status by his inheritance of power from the Apostle Peter, and therefore from Christ. In addition, he is also the head of the Vatican, a state that occupies a small area on the territory of Rome (44 hectares) and enters into diplomatic relations with almost all countries of the world. This was facilitated by the independence of Western bishops (as opposed to Eastern ones) from secular power.

The idea that only the church can entrust power to state rulers began to take shape after the fall of the western territory. Each successive pope pursued his own policy. Under the noble pretext of liberating the Holy Sepulcher, he organized and led military campaigns. And in the 1st century, Pope John VIII supplemented the right of the Catholic Church to decide on the issue of allowing or prohibiting the coronation of rulers with the right to take away the crown from them.

The differences between the two churches (Eastern and Western) increased every year. VII, convened in 787, only increased friction. And they were connected not only with issues of ideology and church dogma, as most uninitiated people think, but also with political reasons. The fact is that at that time the Byzantine Empire was carrying out a successful expansion. Naturally, the rulers of Rome resisted this in every possible way. The starting point was the conflict provoked in 862-870 by Michael III. He deposed Ignatius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and in his place put Photius, a secular man who had nothing to do with the church world. Nicholas I, the Pope, did not like this. Subsequently, this conflict did not develop into a long confrontation, but it did not completely subside either. The aggravation of contradictions occurred in 1054. It ended with the official and final separation of the two churches of Christendom.

From then on, the papacy had a downside. As his prestige and influence on politics grew, so did the behind-the-scenes struggle and intrigue between cardinals interested in who would be in power. There was also a period in the life of the church when they received holy orders only in order to have influence on politics and secular rulers. Popes replaced each other without even waiting for the death of their predecessor. Often a candidate who had previously been overthrown managed to regain the throne. An indicative case is when Pope Benedict IX in the 10th century restored his right to office more than once. Moreover, he himself sold the throne to the next candidate.

Over the next centuries, the papacy was revived and fell into decline many times, making both mistakes and good deeds. Much became known about the crimes of the Catholic Church only after Napoleon conquered European countries: in these territories he abolished the Inquisition.

And only in our days, John Paul II publicly apologized for the crimes committed by the Catholic Church throughout the history of its existence. It was this pope who reformed the structure of the church and developed a modern version of the functions and social role of the church. He repeatedly called on clergy not to participate in the activities of politicians. He saw the main mission of the church in liberating the world from conflicts, but not through political methods, but through evangelical service to all humanity, in spiritual shepherding.

One of the most powerful persons endowed with exclusive powers in modern sovereign international law is the Pope. The uniqueness of this position lies in its deep historical meaning and status. The person who holds this position is both the Supreme Catholic Pontiff and the Head of the Holy See, and also acts as the sovereign of the Vatican City State. The position of Supreme Roman Pontiff was established during the Roman Empire and is considered today the most ancient political figure.

At different historical periods, the status of the head of the Catholic Church was ambiguous. In the first years of its existence, the papacy fully experienced all the delights of persecution and persecution to which the followers of the teachings of Christ were subjected. Many pontiffs from among the first popes were cruelly tortured by pagans, others constantly experienced physical pressure from the ruling rulers of the then Europe. However, despite all the difficulties, the papacy managed to survive not only all the hardships of the struggle between Christianity and paganism, but also contributed to the establishment of Christianity as the main religion on the European continent.

The essence of the papacy, the rights and duties of the Pope

The Pope, also known as the Monarch and Sovereign of the Holy See, is the living and real head of the Catholic Church. The special status of the pope is determined by the church hierarchy. In fact, he is the successor of the Apostle Peter, the first Roman bishop. The power of the pope and his sovereignty as head of the Holy See has no territorial limits. In addition to ecclesiastical authority, the Supreme Pontiff is the head of the Vatican City State, on whose territory the Holy See is located.

The meaning of the papacy is clearly seen from the titles that the Pope bears:

• Vicar of Christ;
• Bishop of Rome;
• successor of the Prince of the Apostles St. Peter;
• servant of the servants of God;
• Pontifex Maximus;
• Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church;
• Primate of Italy;
• Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province;
• sovereign of the Vatican City State.

The bulk of the titles belonging to the Pope have a spiritual meaning, defining the meaning, place and role of the Pope in the Christian world. With regard to authority, the spiritual and legal authority of the Supreme Pontiff extends to the entire Catholic Church, to the administrative structure of the church community. In international law, the pope is an independent subject; his spiritual, legal power and sovereignty cannot be limited by secular power. The main duty of the pope is to guard the Christian faith, to promote its establishment and spread. The pope is in charge not only of issues of spiritual morality and faith. The Supreme Pontiff administers the Catholic Church.

From the point of view of Catholicism, the pope is a direct descendant of the Apostle Peter, to whom Jesus entrusted the service of the Lord in a special way. The right to be a high priest is successive and is transferred to a clergyman who is worthy of this title. As a rule, the Vicar of Christ on Earth is elected from the highest clergy members of the college of bishops (conclave). With the election, the pope acquires full supreme ecclesiastical and administrative power, becoming the absolute monarch of the Holy See. Decisions and decrees of the Supreme Roman Pontiff have the status of law and are not subject to appeal. The competence of the Pope includes the right of legislative initiative within the Catholic Church, the right to interpret decisions of Ecumenical Councils, amend existing edicts and cancel previous decisions.

The Pope determines church discipline by issuing canons, which are compiled into canonical reference books and codified. Carrying out administrative functions, the Supreme Roman Pontiff is responsible for conferring church rank, making appointments to positions, and giving orders within the framework of the church administration system.

The meaning of the papacy is reflected in the coat of arms of the Vatican City State. It depicts all papal regalia, symbols and insignia.

The crossed keys symbolically represent the keys of the Apostle Simon Peter. The silver key signifies the connection of the authority given by the Church with the right to authorize (golden key) to rule in the name of the Lord. The tiara - the triple crown - symbolizes the three main functions of the papacy:

• to be the supreme shepherd for all Christians;
• to be the supreme teacher;
• to be the Supreme High Priest.

The golden cross crowning the tiara symbolizes the sovereignty of the Lord, Jesus Christ. The tiara was placed on the brow of the pontiff at the time of the papal coronation - a solemn rite, reminiscent in its function of the inauguration of the head of state.

History of the formation of the papacy

There is extremely scant information about the first bishops who led the first Christian communities. The Vatican archives contain ancient manuscripts dating back to the 1st-2nd centuries, which mention clergy holding the title of high priest among Christians. The institution of the papacy itself appeared much later, at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century. The papacy was formed within the Roman province, where the Roman episcopate was created. The privileged position of the Roman bishops was explained by the fact that it was in Rome, in the very center of the Roman Empire, that there were lands belonging to the Christian community. Subsequently, already bearing the title of pope, the Roman bishops expanded their possessions. In fact, already in the 6th century, Rome became the main center of apostolic power of the Catholic Church.

The final establishment of the papacy as a sovereign ruler occurred in the 8th century, when the Frankish king Pepin the Short granted a Roman province to the Roman episcopate. Rome and its surrounding territory become the Papal States, a state administrative entity with universal status. Now the pope represented the highest ecclesiastical authority and at the same time was a sovereign secular ruler.

As for the official title, during the period of the establishment of Christian teaching, all priests who had the right to bless were called pope. Later, during the emergence of the papacy as the spiritual center of Christianity, the title pope applied to all bishops. After the division of the Christian Church into Rome and Constantinople, the procedure for conferring the papal rank also changed. With the establishment of Rome as the main episcopate, the papal rank was assigned only to Roman or Alexandrian bishops. There was a protopope in Constantinople - the chief pontiff of the Constantinople Orthodox Church.

Until 1059, the election of the pope in Rome was carried out by a joint meeting of the secular and ecclesiastical nobility. This practice was put to an end by the Lateran Council, at which it was decided to elect the pope by a meeting (conclave) of cardinals from among the first bishops of the Catholic Church. With the election, the pope publicly announces under what name he will lead the Catholic Church. If in the history of the papacy there were already persons with similar names, then a serial number is added to the chosen name. From this moment on, the Pope has a throne name, which he bears throughout his pontificate.

The tradition of changing worldly names dates back to the early Middle Ages, when ancient Roman and Greek names associated with pagan cults were in use. The first pope to change his secular name Mercury was John II, who occupied the Holy See in the 6th century. Officially, the procedure for changing a name has never been regulated by anyone, but this rite has become traditional in the ceremony of electing a pope since the 11th century. In the entire subsequent history of the papacy, only two Supreme Pontiffs did not change their names: Adrian VI, in the world Adrian Florence, and Marcello Cervini, who became Pope Marcellus II.

The election of the Head of the Holy See did not always proceed smoothly and in accordance with the established procedure. The Papal throne often became hostage to the political situation in Europe. In the early Middle Ages, quite often the powerful monarchs of Europe used the Catholic Church as a convenient tool of socio-political manipulation, making the temporal power of the pope hostage to a complex military-political situation. This state of affairs is clearly illustrated by the Middle Ages, when the papacy strenuously fought for the supremacy of spiritual power over secular rule. Despite significant progress in this direction, unlike spiritual authority, the sovereignty of the pope was constantly under threat.

Each of the political forces sought to subordinate the papal throne to its influence, causing a split in the unity of the Catholic Church. The result of this policy is the practice of electing an antipope. In the history of the papal throne there are many cases when spiritual power was shared among several persons who bore the title of Supreme Roman Pontiff. The issue of electing the head of the Holy See could be decided in different places, with the participation of different secular persons and clergy. The right to legally bear the title of Supreme Pontiff usually remained with the clergy whose adherents won a political victory. Despite the fact that the existence of antipopes was common practice in medieval Europe, the official Vatican does not recognize their existence.

Only legitimate popes are listed in the official register, each of which has its own serial number.

The most famous personalities in the history of the papacy

The entire history of the papacy is closely connected not only with the process of formation and establishment of Christianity, but also largely reflects political events that, to one degree or another, affected the international structure. The existence of the institution of the papacy can be divided into the following periods, which reflect the political situation on the political map of the world at that time:

• The Pre-Nicene period conventionally occupies the 2nd-3rd century - the time of the spread of Christianity before the accession of Emperor Constantine;
• the period of the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire (313-493);
• Ostrogothic period - the fall of the Roman Empire and the formation of the Ostrogothic kingdom (493-537);
• Byzantine period of the papacy (537-752);
• The Frankish period spans the entire century from 756 to 857;
• the era of papal humiliation by secular rulers (1044-1048);
• imperial era (1048-1257) - the period of greatest prosperity and power of the papacy;
• transition period - a time of instability of papal power (1257-1309).

From the time of the establishment and establishment of the papacy as the Head of the Catholic Church until 1309, when the pope and his entire residence moved to Avignon (France), the Holy See was headed by 194 persons. The countdown comes from the Apostle Peter, who is supposedly the founder of the Holy See. During the period of the formation of the Christian faith, it was mainly the Romans who became the supreme pontiff. Eight of this number represented Greek dioceses. Three popes were from African provinces. The Holy See was led by the French twice. Once each, the Head of the Catholic Church was a Syrian, a German and an Englishman, Adrian IV, who transferred Ireland to the disposal of the English crown.

In the ante-Nicene period, being a pope meant exposing yourself to persecution and persecution from the pagan cult and authorities, so many high priests died as martyrs. Relative security and stability came to the institution of the papacy with the accession of Emperor Constantine to the throne of the Roman Empire, who gave Christianity the status of a state religion.

The first to use the title “pope” was Saint Siricius, reigning 384-399. The only decretals that have survived to this day are associated with the period of his reign. Of all the popes who became famous in history during this period, it is worth noting the Supreme Pontiff Leo I (440-461), who personally managed to convince Attila not to invade Italy. Pope Gregory II, who occupied the Holy See in 715-731, actively fought against iconoclasm. During the Middle Ages, the sovereign monarchs of Europe often used force to assert their power. This was the case with Pope John XII, who was expelled from Rome by the troops of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I.

According to historians and theologians, the most significant place in the history of the papacy is occupied by Pope Urban II, who opened the era of the Crusades. It was his fiery speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095 about the need to liberate the Promised Land from Muslims that became the beginning of a massive military-political movement. In the late Middle Ages, Pope Gregory IX distinguished himself by entrusting the Inquisition to the Dominican Order. The Roman high priest Gregory X (1271-76) by his decretal introduced the conclave - a council of cardinals involved in the election of the pope and the discussion of important spiritual and administrative issues.

Papacy in times of instability

The most controversial moment in the history of the papacy is the period from 1309 to 1377, called the Captivity of Avignon. The increased influence of France on the European stage directly affected the institution of the papacy. As a result of the flared conflict between Pope Benedict XI and King Philip the Fair of France, the title of Supreme Ruler of the Universal Church was soon given to the French Bishop Raymond Bertrand, who took the throne name Clement V. On his initiative and under pressure from the King of France, the residence of the popes was moved to the French city of Avignon. Rome, considered the cradle of Christianity in Europe, lost its status as a Holy City for almost 70 years.

The role of Pope Clement V in the history of the papacy is controversial. It was at his instigation that the persecution of the Templar Order began, which ended with the complete defeat and ban of the Templar Order in 1312. Only Pope Gregory XI managed to return the papal throne back to the Holy City in 1377.

The next period of instability in the institution of the papacy was the Great Western Schism. For 39 years, several people laid claim to the papal throne. Each was supported by one or another political group, relying either on France or on local wealthy Italian houses. The popes took turns sitting either in the Vatican or in Avignon. The era of the Renaissance, which began with the arrival of Martin V to the Holy See in 1417, put an end to the confusion with the popes and the period of dual power.

In 1517, the papacy experienced another crisis associated with the beginning of the Reformation in Europe. During this period, the religious movement of Martin Luther emerged, who fought against the Latinization of Christian doctrine. Some of the popes who held high positions at this time made concessions, implementing reforms in the management of the cult and making changes to the system of rituals. This period saw a significant weakening of papal power both in Italy itself and on the periphery, in the countries of Central and Northern Europe. However, the Reformation quickly ended with the beginning of the Counter-Reformation - a period when fierce persecution began against the followers of Luther's teachings. During this period, Europe plunged into the abyss of bloody religious wars. All over Europe, from France to the Carpathian Mountains, Catholics and Protestants destroyed each other. The times of unrest and fermentation in religious beliefs ended with the transition of the papacy to the period of Enlightenment (1585-1689).

One of the significant events of this period is the reform of the calendar carried out by Pope Gregory XIII. The same Supreme Pontiff first published the Code of Canon Law.

The last period of instability in the history of the papacy was the era of revolutionary wars that swept the European continent. At this time, from 1775 to 1861, the Holy See was occupied by popes who had an extremely contradictory position in relation to the events taking place. If the Supreme Pontiff of Rome, Pope Pius VI, condemned the Great French Revolution, for which he was expelled from Rome by French troops, then his successor, Pope Pius VII, had already personally crowned Napoleon Bonaparte as Emperor of the French. Napoleon practically destroyed the sovereignty of the papacy, seizing the Papal States and turning the Holy See into its own episcopate.

The revolution that began in Italy led to the fact that in 1848 the Papal States were occupied by Austrian troops. In 1846, Pope Pius IX occupied the Holy See. His merits include the adoption of the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, and the submission for approval by the First Vatican Council of the dogma of the infallibility of papal decisions and canons. Pope Pius IX was the longest-serving head of the Catholic Church in the history of the pontificate, from 1846 to 1878. During his reign, the Papal States finally lost their borders, becoming part of the new Italian state along with the Holy City. Rome becomes the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. From this moment on, the secular power of the Roman high priests finally lost its status.

New time

Only in 1929, after the Lateran Agreement, the Pope again became sovereign, regaining his status as Head of the Vatican City State. In the new, modern history of the papacy, there were eight Supreme Pontiffs, each of whom managed to leave a noticeable mark on the Christian faith. Pope Paul VI convened the Second Vatican Council in 1962, which discussed the need to renew the Catholic Church in connection with the new realities of our time. The result of the council, which met for 3 years, was a revision of the Code of Canon Law, which included significant amendments regarding the grounds for excommunication and a number of other articles.

The new canonical code was approved and signed in 1983 by Pope John Paul II. This Supreme Pontiff, a Pole by birth, remained the Head of the Catholic Church for 27 years. His reign was driven by the growing popularity of papal power in the world. Under John Paul II, the Catholic Church regained the status of a serious political force. The current Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Francis, an Argentinean by birth, became the first non-European pope. His election took place on March 13, 2013, after his predecessor Pope Benedict XVI abdicated the throne.

The residence of the current pope, like his predecessors, is the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. The archive, the Library of the Holy See, St. Peter's Cathedral, the Sistine Chapel, and other religious buildings are also located here. The main administrative services of the Catholic Church and the institutions of the enclave state are also located here.

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The official history of the papacy covers a period of 1,700 years. The papacy itself is not a purely religious institution. It would be more correct to call it political-religious. It unites 1 billion 300 million Catholics living in almost all countries of the world. Relies on bishops, of whom there are 4 thousand. In Catholicism there are three degrees of priesthood: deacon, priest and bishop.

There are also cardinals. These are clergy from deacons, priests and bishops. Depending on the priesthood, cardinals are divided into ranks and united in the College of Cardinals. She performs advisory functions with the pope and elects the next pope at the conclave. This system is streamlined, proven and highly effective. It is not for nothing that Catholicism is so popular in the world and unites a huge number of believers into a single confession.

Was the Apostle Peter the first pope?

The Catholic Church officially considers the Apostle Peter to be the first pope.. He is also considered the first bishop. It was this man who created the first Christian community in Rome after Christ was crucified. In 64, a terrible fire broke out in the “eternal city”. The Romans believed that the culprit was Emperor Nero. He allegedly wanted to destroy the old city, and in its place build a new one and call it by his own name.

To divert suspicion from himself, Nero blamed Christians for the arson. Members of the community were captured and thrown into prison. Peter was also arrested. He was crucified upside down, since the apostle considered that he had no right to be crucified like his teacher Christ. The Basilica of St. was subsequently erected on the site of the tragedy. Petra. This is the official version of Catholics.

Apostle Peter walking on water

However, these historical facts give rise to great doubt. The point is that Peter did not know Latin. And, therefore, he could not stand at the head of the Roman community. In Rome, people spoke precisely this language, and a disciple of Christ was born in Bethsaida of Galilee. This is an Israeli city in which the family of a simple fisherman Jonah lived.

The future first pope was born in it. He received the name Simon, but did not receive any education. This man could neither read nor write. But he knew how to listen, and Christ’s sermons made an indelible impression on him. It was the Son of God who named him Peter, but did not teach him the Latin language, as well as literacy.

Maybe a miracle happened and the apostle received the necessary knowledge in the blink of an eye? This is unlikely, since we all understand that if we are guided by miracles, we will not be able to objectively perceive history. Therefore, it is more reasonable to assume that Peter’s righteous activities in Rome are fiction.

Papacy from the time of Constantine to the present day

Emperor Constantine and Christianity

The persecution of Christians had no effect on the new religion. It took deep roots in people's souls. The long-awaited shoots appeared only during the reign of Emperor Constantine (306-337). He was an outstanding politician. He moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the Greek city of Byzantium. Significantly expanded it and made it the center not only of the empire, but also of the Christian religion. Subsequently, the city began to be called Constantinople. It was under Constantine that Christians began to gain strength, and the first basilica was built in Rome in 324.

Before Constantine, bishops were considered the spiritual mentors of the flock. They all stayed in Rome. The formation of the papacy began under Bishop Sylvester. His whole life was distinguished by holiness, and this venerable man died in 335. After 2 years, Emperor Constantine also left for another world. But the grace-filled shoots that sprouted under him strengthened the church and made it an authoritative institution, which soon began to significantly influence the political life of the state.

Papacy and power

The struggle for power within the Christian church flared up sharply in 366 under Damasus. He became bishop of Rome, expelling his rival from the city. In this case, about 200 Christians died, since any power requires sacrifices. It was Damasius who was the first to call himself pope and was on the church throne from 366 to 384.

His authority and influence reached such magnitude that the Roman Emperor Theodosius I (379-395) was forced to convene an Ecumenical Council in 381. The Council recognized the Bishop of Constantinople as second only to the Bishop of Rome and forbade the bishops to interfere in each other's affairs. Damasius died at the age of 84 and was canonized.

Actually, from the time of Damasus, the history of the papacy began its inevitable course. And before that there was a prelude, since the Christian religion was very weak and did not have the appropriate authority and weight.

In 753, Pope Stephen II (III), venerable in all respects, showed church and lay people a document allegedly signed by Emperor Constantine himself. It was written in black and white that the ruler transfers all power over the western part of the empire to the Pope, while he himself leaves the eastern part under his control. That is, it turned out that the rank of the pope corresponded to the rank of the emperor. Only in the 15th century did it become clear that this document was a fake.

In July 1054 there was a split in the Christian Church.. It was divided into Roman Catholic and Orthodox. The reason for this tragedy must be sought in the ritual and ethical differences between the Latins and Greeks. Contradictions had been brewing for many hundreds of years, and in the 11th century a denouement came. The Patriarch of Constantinople anathematized the papal legates, and in retaliation they took and excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople.

The clergy turned out to be very vindictive. They remembered the insults inflicted for 1000 years. Only in 1965 were the mutual anathemas lifted. But Catholics and Christians, naturally, did not become a single flock, although warmer relations were established between them.

Conflict between Pope Gregory VII and King Henry IV

In 1073, Pope Gregory VII took the papal throne. This most respectable man in all respects led the Catholic Church until 1085. His reign is notable for his conflict with the future Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (1050-1106).

Gregory VII declared that the power of the pope was superior to that of the emperor. He arrogated to himself the right to depose European rulers. The German king Henry IV opposed this. He gathered the German bishops in 1076, and they declared the pope deposed.

Then the pontiff excommunicated the king from the church. The German princes, who had given an oath of allegiance to Henry IV, found themselves freed from it and rebelled. They began to prepare for the election of another Holy Roman Emperor.

The debunked monarch went through the Alps to the castle of Canossa, where at that time the head of the Catholic Church was located. In January 1077, he found himself under the walls of the fortress. Barefoot, dressed in a hair shirt, the king stood in the cold and waited for the papal decision. Gregory VII watched him from the window of the fortress tower. Only at the end of the third day did he forgive the daring autocrat and remove his penance.

Pornocracy

The history of the papacy is inextricably linked with popes and antipopes. The second are those who bore the sacred title illegally. They received it through bribes or other various cunning methods. A striking example of anti-papacy is pornocracy. This is a whole historical period that lasted several decades. It began with the accession to the papal throne of Sergius III (904-911).

He is considered the murderer of his two predecessors. He turned the papal court into a place of debauchery and theft. Got myself a 15 year old mistress named Marozia. She gave birth to new dads, and then killed them. By her order, 4 popes were killed. At the same time, shamelessness and corruption flourished in the holy of holies of the Catholic Church. Eventually, Marozia was arrested by one of her sons, imprisoned, where she died in 954.

In 955, Pope John XII, the grandson of Marozia, received papal power. He was in power for 8 years. But the situation has not changed for the better. Murder, incest and other immoral acts flourished again. Dad finished poorly. He was killed by a deceived husband who found his wife in the arms of the head of the Catholic Church. This is where the pornocracy ends.

The Pope and his flock

Papacy and money

Popes and antipopes changed, but the desire for absolute power continued. A serious attempt to establish ecclesiastical power over secular power was made by Pope Boniface VIII (1294-1303). On this sensitive issue he issued a bull. It said that the pope holds spiritual power in one hand, and secular power in the other.

But the head of Catholicism miscalculated. The period of feudal fragmentation was ending. Royal power grew stronger. And the bull was met with hostility by European monarchs. King Philip IV of France was especially outraged by the papal claims. He initiated the convening of the Estates General. The members of this high assembly demanded that the pope appear before an ecclesiastical court. But the trial did not take place. This was prevented by the death of the pontiff.

After this incident, the ambitions of the popes diminished. They never again clearly laid claim to secular power. High-ranking holy fathers took up other matters. Starting from the 14th century, they began to absolve sins for money. The business turned out to be terribly profitable. Of course, officially such things were strictly prohibited. But it's official. There were many abuses. Naturally, they were carried out with the tacit consent of the popes.

The Church, having forgiven the sinner his sins, gave him an official document - indulgence. That is, everything was furnished to the highest level. The sins of the dead were also forgiven. But here everything depended on the relatives. If they expressed a desire to pay, then the soul of the deceased, it must be understood, went to heaven. True, some far-sighted people discussed a similar procedure in their will. The Catholic Church also practiced issuing licenses to brothels. At the same time, the priestesses of love no longer worried about God's punishment. All sinful acts were forgiven to them in advance.

This whole bacchanalia continued until 1567, that is, more than 250 years. In 1566, Pope Pius V took the papal throne. And the church immediately felt a harsh master's hand. All the outrages that disgrace the work of God were put to an end. The new pope turned out to be a stern, tough man, a supporter of an ascetic lifestyle. He kicked out all the crooks, careerists and opportunists. He put things in order in financial and divine affairs. At the same time, the authority of the Catholic Church increased significantly.

Schism of the Catholic Church

But this did not save her from a split. The Catholic Church has accumulated too many sins over the past centuries. Here no pope could resist the emergence of Protestantism. Led religious reforms Martin Luther(1483-1546). He found many followers. As a result, all this resulted in religious wars that rocked Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.

In the end, the Catholic Church came to terms with the new denomination. Currently, Protestants live all over the world, and their number numbers 1 billion people. They do not have a single center, unlike Catholics and Orthodox. All churches are united in church unions and enjoy equal rights.

View of the Vatican from above

Vatican and the election of the Pope

Today, the history of the papacy is associated with the Vatican. This is a city-state located on the territory of Rome. The Vatican is the seat of the head of the Roman Catholic Church. It has existed in its current form since February 1929.

It is in this place that the new pope is elected by a conclave or meeting of cardinals. Elected for life. Until a new head of the church is elected, the duties of the pope are assigned to the camerlenge. This is the highest court position. It is very ancient, and originated in the 11th century. The people will learn about the election of a new pontiff by the column of white smoke that rises from the chimney of the Sistine Chapel. The elections themselves take place in a special room in the Vatican Palace. Until February 28, 2013, Benedict XVI was Pope. He was elected to this high post in April 2005.

On February 11, 2013, Benedict XVI announced his decision to abdicate the throne. It came into force on February 28, 2013 at 20:00 Rome time. The former pope retained the rank of cardinal, but did not take part in the conclave due to his venerable 80 years of age.

On March 13, 2013, the conclave elected a new pope. It was announced to the breathless world that Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio had become the head of the Catholic Church. He is Argentinean with Italian roots. Born in Buenos Aires in 1936 into a working-class family. The newly elected pope took the name Francis in honor of Francis of Assisi. This is a saint who was compassionate and helped the sick and poor. The new head of the Vatican is a worthy candidate for a high post. May God and the sincere faith of Catholics protect him.